Ancient Rites And Ceremonies

ANCIENT RITES AND
CEREMONIES

A >r.\N OF TIM- Sandwich Islands in a Mask.

Irouiispii

ANCIENT RITES

AND CEREMONIES

By

GRACE A. MURRAY

(Mrs. Keith Murray)

Author of Personalities of the Eighteenth Century'*' ;
Translator of ** Nightfall'' by Henri Ardel.

London :

ALSTON RIVERS LTD.
i8 York Buildings, Adelphi, W.C.

FIRSX PlUNTRD 1929.

Priniid in \ih* Unittd Kingdtm by
/§hH iVright ^^Scns Ltd*t StafU Bridge, Britt^l

CONTENTS

>»AGF

Abyssinia - - - - - - 15

Ancient Nations of Central America : Aztecs of

Mexico; Mayas of Yucatan, Cuba, etc. • - 19

Celebes - - - - - -34

Ceylon - - - - - - 37

Congo ------- 42

Fiji 52

Greece - - - - - - 61

Hawaiian or Sandwich Islands - - - 73

Hottentots - - - - - - 82

Java -------88

Malaya - - - - - *93

Marianne Islands (Ladrones) - - - 98

Marquesas Islands ----- 103

The Netherlands - - - - - 107

North American Indians - - - -113

The Northern Regions and Greenland - - 132

Persia - - - - - - 147

Peru (Ancient Incas) - - - - 158

Philippine Islands - - - - - 172

Poland - - - - - - 177

Polynesia - - - - - - 182

Polynesia (Tonga) - - • - - 184

Russia and Tartary - - - - 192

Society Islands - - - - - 212

South American Indians - - - - 220

Sumatra 229

Tasmania (Van Diemen's Land) - - * 232

Turrsy • - - • . - 2J4

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

A Man of the Sandwich Islands in a Mask Frontispiece

FACING PAGE

A Religious Fanatic (Ceylon) - - - 37

A Group of Cingalese - - - - 40

Fijian Police - - - - - 5^

The Reception of Captain Cook in Hapaee

(Hawaii) - - - - - * 73

Canoe of the Sandwich Islands with Masked

Rowers - - - * - - 77

A Man in the Sandwich Islands, Dancing - 81

A Flatooka, or Morai, in Tongataboo - 185

The Body of Tee, a Chief, as Preserved after

Death, in Otaheite - - • - 212

A Man of Van Diemen's Land - - - 232

In Memory of my Best Friend

PREFACE

The world is flooded with literature on every con-
ceivable subject ; it would be, therefore, absurd to
pretend that ancient customs had escaped this
influx. Mere samples of various countries have
been taken — a greater scope would have entailed
a life’s work.

To those who like probing beyond the surface, it
will be interesting to note how the same customs
are common to nations living thousands of miles
apart, holding no intercourse with each other :
among these Cannibalism may be quoted. Strabo
even alludes, in about the year 600 b.c., to the
inhabitants of England and Ireland as eaters of men ;
while St. Jerome writes, that as a young man he
saw a Scotsman eating human flesh, mentioning
the most appetizing parts. These may be mere
traditions — most people will prefer to believe they
are.

Whether by sea or by land, from whichever
direction peoples migrated, they would, more espe-
cially in very early times, bring their particular
manners and customs with them. In the course of
generations, the original and weaker country would
be dominated by force of numbers. Indeed in
primitive days, dominion was a universal plague,
the Tartars being the most conspicuous example.

The worship of ancestors, who were raised to the

Preface

dignity of gods, was one of the most dominant
features of ancient days ; to these they offered
sacrifices for aid and protection. Among the chief
factors in making people what they became, was
shortage of food, and the rigour of an intensely
cold climate. Whether, under the like conditions
— the social fanatics, and mentally and morally
unfit having predominated — we might ourselves, in
course of time, return to these undesirable con-
ditions — who knows ?

Apart from researches into the evidence of the
most reliable travellers, voyagers, and navigators,
the writer has had the privilege of first-hand infor-
mation from those who have spent many years in
such countries as the Congo, Fiji, Ceylon, and
Poland. To these, and other friends, she is also
indebted for the illustrations contained in this
volume.

ANCIENT RITES AND
CEREMONIES

ABYSSINIA

Before Abyssinia was more intimately connected with
that particular part of the world, it was loosely included
in Ethiopia and Nubia, and associated with Arabs and
Negroids. But after the discovery of Abyssinia by the
Portuguese it seems to have been overlooked or forgotten
for nearly 900 years, until about 1490. Their tradition
asserts that they were descended from Shem, the son
of Noah ; they also claimed to be the only Christians
in the world, yet Judaism and Mahometanism were
woven into their rites and ceremonies.

The Abyssinian version of the Old Testament story
was, that jealousy, the prevailing root of all evil,
descended with other sins from our first parents. Adam
and Eve had enjoyed a period of enchanted rapture in
Paradise ; one evening when Adam had gone to heaven
for his daily visit to pray, the Devil looked in to see Eve ;
and after making a few personal remarks of a flattering
nature, enquired after her spouse. Eve replied by
informing him of the whereabouts of her husband, at
which the Devil smiled doubtingly ; but no word escaped
his lips, in spite of Eve’s enquiring as to the reason of
his mysterious smile. Eventually, with much apparent

14 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

reluctance, the Devil broke it very gently that Eve
was a deceived wife. “ How can this be ? ” replied the
lady contemptuously, “for I know there is no woman
created except myself ! ” The Devil commiserated with
her sadly on her simplicity ; at the same time asking,
whether she would credit his words were she shown
another woman ; and upon Eve’s assenting — ^he held
up a mirror.

Father Jerome Lobo, the Jesuit, sent to Abyssinia
by King John II of Portugal in 1490, testified to the
existence of the unicorn, but as no one ever seems to have
seen it properly, one feels justified in being a trifle
sceptical. We also hear how the Abyssinians “ eat
flesh raw, and, they have a method of obtaining it
which seems hardly credible, but is a fact.” One of
these methods is given by Dr. Bruce, in 1791, when he
met some travellers who were driving a cow, and
presently discovered, that the wound caused by a
“ steak,” cut from the hind quarters of the animal,
was then closed in by drawing the skin over it, and the
application of some clay. The animal was afterwards
driven on until there was demand for another meal.

At their feast called Brind, lumps of flesh were cut
out of a bull or cow ; the roaring of the poor beast,
being the signal for the commencement of the feast.
Before serving their masters with food and drink, the
servants always previously tasted it. And, as in
Abyssinia, there was nothing considered so disgusting
as licking the fingers after eating, a piece of bread was
provided for wiping their mouths. Indeed, in some
respects, the manners of these people, although the
reasons might not always be intelligible to us, were
beyond reproach ; for example, when persons of
importance sneezed, everyone within reach immediately
exclaimed, “ God forgive you, master.”

Abyssinia

15

In the higher classes, marriage took place about
Christmas, or after Ascension Day. After which,
husband and wife kept separate tables ; or, if they were
of the same opinion, each supplied his own previously
prepared food. It was esteemed unlawful to have more
than one wife at a time, but they were allowed to live
with a number of wives, as polygamy was not considered
detrimental to society. Divorce was not uncommon,
the main causes being — the want of children, or bodily
infirmity on either side ; infidelity was usually arranged
by compromise.

If a married couple were unable to agree, the children
were divided, the decision being made by the priest :
usually, the father took the eldest boy, and the mother
the eldest girl. Should any complications arise after
this distribution, the matter was settled by the casting
of votes. At an earlier period, marriage was never
performed in churches, nor had a priest any part in
the matter : a man might take as many wives as he
chose, should he not consider it prudent to restrict
himself to one, a misgiving which, apparently, often
beset these Abyssinians. If it, however, happened that
a couple felt satisfied with each other, they went before
'' a court of the elders of the town” to arrange that
any property of which they might be possessed should
be joined together for the benefit of both ; neither
having the power to dispose of it, without the consent
of the other.

No Abyssinian was jealous of a man with whom he
was on terms of friendship, whatever familiarities might
have taken place between him and his wife ; otherwise
an erring wife would usually be deprived of her fortune
and be turned out of the house, a week only being
allowed for her to find a living.

At Amhdra and Tigri, when a man considered his

i6 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

daughter old enough for marriage, he exhibited her at
the door, under the pretence of spinning or cleaning
com : at the same time she was instructed how “ to
turn up the whites of her eyes, when men or strangers
pass, and put on a look between bravery and modesty
when repl)dng to questions.” The children were soon
sold, the price being a cotton shirt, or a piece of cloth.
Should the man be content with his purchase, he sent
a piece of white cloth, dipped in the blood of a fowl,
round to her friends. He could rid himself of her when
he chose ; and, at the expiration of any time previously
arranged, she, also, was free to quit him.

There was a revolting practice that when a woman
lost one or more children she would, in hopes of
saving one lately born, cut off a piece from her left
ear, roll it in a slice of bread, and swallow it.
Others shaved one side of their head until the child
was fully grown.

It was considered improper for women to wash or
sew any article of clothing, these duties being more
suitable to men : indeed, in certain districts, it was
even thought a disgrace for women to milk cows or
goats. Among other prejudices, might be mentioned
the Abyssinians’ aversion to hares, of which there were
a great number : anyone touching these animals was
regarded as polluted.

Among their omens was whether the notes of certain
birds were heard on the right or left side. Important
undertakings, such as war, or a hunting expedition with
every probability of success, would be suddenly aban-
doned merely because the chirp of a small bird was
heard on the left side : which was the propitious side
for the retimi journey but the wrong side for setting
out. At Tigr6, the black and white falcons were
particularly associated with omens: should they fly

Abyssinia

17

away on the approach of a traveller it indicated disaster ;
should they, however, remain perched on the trees
looking at him, all would be well. An animal which
had been killed by a lion or a leopard, was usually
considered good eating, owing to these beasts being
regarded as Christian : very different was it, had they
been killed by that * 'disgusting scavenger,” a hyena,
which was regarded as part of the Mussulman religion
and, consequently, unfit for food.

These people were great believers in a species of
malevolent spirits called Bouda ; according to Mansfield
Parkjms, the trade of blacksmith, which was hereditary,
was regarded with more or less opprobrium ; for with
few exceptions they were believed to be sorcerers,
possessing the power of turning into hyenas and other
animals. One of the customs of the Abyssinians was
to conceal a child’s baptismal name, which was usually
the name of some saint, and call it by some nickname
given it by their mothers on leaving the church : the
reason being, that the Bouda could not in any way
mjure one whose name he did not know. Otherwise,
he took a special kind of straw, and having muttered
some incoherent words over it, bent it into a circle, then
hid it under a stone. At the moment the straw was
being bent, the person would be taken ill ; and should
it snap while this was being done, the person would
certainly die.

In certain localities, should the husband on his return
from work, leaving his wife at home, find that a spear
had been stood at the door of his hut, he would go away,
knowing that some other man was with her. After
allowing sufficient time to elapse for the visitor’s depar-
ture, whether it was a neighbour, brother, or some
stranger, his wife was closely questioned. Supposing
the visitor to have been a stranger, no offence would

2

i8 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

be taken ; she would, however, be asked if she had
made a good bargain, in which case she was commended.
Should, on the contrary, the bargain have been a poor
one, she would be rebuked — ^this being the custom of
the country.

ANCIENT NATIONS OF CENTRAL
AMERICA :

Aztecs of Mexico^ Mayas of Yucatan^
CubOi Etc.

The existence of these nations became known in
Europe, only at the beginning of the i6th century.
They comprised cities of many-storied stone buildings,
vast temples, densely populated, and in a remarkably
high state of civilization. Ruled by kings and nobles
each with heraldic arms, divided into a number of
states, with governors and retinues, and an extremely
superior order of intelligence especially devoted to
mathematics and astronomy, with every virtue and
balanced mentality of law and order. Yet these people
were saturated with a form of religion, the wooden
and clay idols of which demanded a constant supply
of human blood to appease their wrath, or for the
conferring of their benefits.

To have arrived at the state of civilization which
they had reached, must have involved a vast number of
centuries of gradual development ; there is unfortu-
nately no translatable record which gives us any clue
to their earlier history, except that perhaps it originated
in the North American continent. All that can be said
is, there were found, in about the year 1500 a.d., two
nations, the Aztecs and Mayas, who had passed the
zenith of civilization — the how and whence is unknown ;
and that principally owing to constant warfare, probably
combined with over-population, the fighting men being

20

Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

so reduced that the first strangers from Spain conquered
and annexed the falling Empire of the Aztecs, while
the Mayas were exterminated in their own wars. The
construction and development of many centuries, and
its establishment of probably 4000 years were thus
swept away by their conquest in about 1523. These
people are known as Ancient Mexicans.

There appears to have existed many tribes of the
same nation, of the same origin, who were mound
dwellers ; mounds of remarkable workmanship occupied
many miles in area. Another group, at a different
place, were cavern dwellers, living in caves, in almost
inaccessible positions ; these also extended over a very
large area, which resulted in a constant state of civil
war between communities and tribes, and accounted
for their disruption and eventual conquest.

All these people lived in a state of commimism and
socialism, imder the supreme head of the confederation
whose palace was in the town of Mexico. Every man
was obliged to marry at the age of twenty : failing this
he was deemed only fit to be a slave.

Any man or woman disguised as the other sex was
killed ; while the privilege of being drunk was reserved
for men over seventy.

Names were not transmitted from father to son, and
children belonged to the community.

There was said to be a period of 104 years before the
descendants of the first man and the first woman settled
at Aztlam : the Chichimecas were one of these earliest
tribes. While migrating for eighty years in obedience
to the voice of their gods, they stopped at various
places, leaving behind a number of their people, imtil
they had occupied North, South, East and West of the
Lake of Mexico.

ITie first of the exodus to arrive at the lake were

Ancient Nations

21

the Su-chimilci : they were gardeners, and established
a community of that name on the South side. Thus
all sides of the lake were occupied. When a fifth group
arrived, finding all the territory in possession, they
marched away ot the mountains, and founded the town
of Quahuac — ^signifying Eagle. There was yet a sixth
group, who settled still further to the East ; these
people aided the Spaniards in their conquest of Mexico.

All these groups lived harmoniously with one another,
and established laws for the government of the race.
Three himdred years later arrived people, under the
leadership of a man called Mexi. During their exodus
they stopped for periods and peopled certain districts,
according to the command of their god Vitzilipuztli,
to whom they offered human sacrifices.

These people founded a number of settlements and
finally arrived at Chapultepec, conquering all the
previous settlers. Their god, Vitzilipuztli, appeared in
a vision to the people’s priest, and commanded them to
establish themselves at that part of the lake where
they would find an eagle perched on a cactus, the root
of which was in a rock ; this the priest found after a
short search : the eagle with spread wings was looking
at the sun, holding a small bird in its talons. At this
spot they built their town, which they called Tenochillan,
Hence, the Mexican coat-of-arms is an eagle gazing at
the sun, with outspread wings, holding a serpent —
emblem of fertility — in its claws, with one foot on a
cactus branch. When the houses were erected, the
Mexicans raised a temple to their god. These people,
both men and women, were big and tawny coloured ;
their hairless faces broad, their noses flat : they were
a long-lived people.

Friar Marcus de Nica in 1539, speaking of the

hicihmecas, says that they were looked upon by

22

Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

other tribes in the light of saints and priests. They
lived in the woods, and " they eate such things as they
of the country give them of almes.” Certain of their
small temples had small round window spaces, full of
dead men’s skulls. In front of the temple was a great
round ditch, for the purpose of immolation. From
time to time they of this valley cast lots whose lucke
(honour) it shal be to be sacrificed, and they make him
great cheere, on whom the lotte falleth, and with great
joy they crowne him with flowres upon a bed prepared
in the sayd ditch all full of flowres and sweete hearbes,
on which they lay him along, and lay great store of
dry wood on both sides of him, and set it on fire on
eyther part, and so he dyeth.” By which it appears that
the victim ** tooke great pleasure ” in being sacrificed.
He was afterwards beatified, and worshipped for that
year ; at the end of which period, his head was set up, with
others, within those windows.” On the other hand,
prisoners were burnt in another ditch, without flowers
or any ceremonies, merely as a sacrifice — to whom, it
is not stated.

Ancient records were expressed in hieroglyphics — a
cycle of time was 52 solar years ; this again was sub-
divided into four periods — each of 13 years : this
number of 13 was a key to their divisions of time. A
month was 20 days ; the year, consisting of 18 months,
counted in thirteens. By this arrangement, given the
name of the day and its corresponding number, the
name of the month was obvious. There were no weeks
of seven days. In some places, the 3rd, 8th, 13th, and
18th were days of rest. At the end of each year, five
days were intercalated.

In certain districts water was worshipped, for as they
said, water caused their crops to grow, and thus main-
tained their life ; also, their ancestors did so.

Ancient Nations

23

Near Cicuic we are told that the natives " chawe
their meate but little, and raven up much, and holding
the flesh with their teeth, they cut it with rasors
of stone.’* Lopez de Somara in 1540 gives a quaint
description of their buffaloes, which were their staple
article of food, large herds roaming all over the plains :
** They have a great bunch upon their fore shoulders,
and more haire on their fore part than on their hinder
part : and it is like wool!. They have as it were an
horse-mane upon their backe bone, and much haire and
very long from the knees downeward. They have great
tuffes of haire hanging downe their foreheads, and it
seemeth that they have beardes, because of the great
store of haire hanging downe at their chinnes and
throates.” At Cevola, the Mexicans had very beauti-
ful turquoises, which they exchanged for oxe-hydes ” ;
the women wore rich girdles of turquoises, with the
same fine jewels hanging from their nostrils and ears ;
they also wore double or treble collars made of the
same jewel.

At Colima, as in various other places, the Indians
painted as well as tattooed their faces ; many of them
also wore shells and bones in their ears ; with a girdle
of various colours round their waist, in the centre of
which, at the back, was a round bunch of feathers,
which '' hangeth downe behind like a tayle.” Further-
more we are told, ‘‘ This is a mightic people, well
feitured, and without any grossenesse.”

After battle, the Indians took out the heart of some
of their enemies, and ate it ; others they burned.
Fernando Alarchon says he saw one woman which
ware a garment like a little Mantle, which clad her
from the waste downe to the ground, of a Deeres skin
well dressed.”

Like the ancient Peruvians, many of the chiefs

24

Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

believed that they were the children of the Sun. It is
difficult to understand how some of the Spanish mission-
aries declared with the greatest assurance that they
also were children of the Sun.

Human sacrifices to the god Quetzaaletatl was a
gruesome ceremony. For forty days before that event,
a slave, who must be perfectly sound and without
blemish, wore the garments of the idol to resemble it.
Nine days before the sacrifice, the man was warned of
his death ; if he showed signs of fear, they bled him,
and made him drink his blood, mixed in cocoa. At
midnight on the day of the sacrifice, the martyr was
slain, and his heart was offered up first to the moon,
and then to the god. The body was later thrown from
the top of the steps of the Temple and seized by some
of the people, who made a meal of it next day.

Other sacrifices there were of unimaginable details :
sometimes they would dress a man in the clothes of a
god and march him through the streets, to be adored
as if he were actually a live god. In some years as
many as 20,000 prisoners were thus sacrificed ; each
particular part — ^tongue, nose, fingers — was separately
sacrificed, and solemnly offered to the gods.

The Indians were evidently remarkably circumspect in
regard to their marriages. If a man had a daughter of
marriageable age, he went to some district, and asked
if there was any man who desired to wed her. In which
case, the father of the young man brought the bride-
elect some offering. After that the marriage was con-
sidered final ; the company danced and sang ; and when
night came “ the parents tooke them, and left them
together in a place where no body might see them.” It
was not usual for maydes ” to converse with men
before their marriage; instead of this dallying they
busied themselves at home. And should any "‘have

Ancient Nations

25

company ” with other men before their marriage, their
outraged husbands forsook them, and went into other
countries, while they ** were accompted naughty packs.”

The climate of these people was hardly ide^, for we
hear ” they use every morning to drive thorow the
towne (Vera Cruz) above two thousand head of cattell,
to take away the ill vapours of the earth.”

In the wildest western regions of Mexico, John
Chiltem says, ” their common armour is bowes and
arrowes (flintheaded) ; they use to eate up such
Christians as they came by.” He thanked God that
because he was ** leane ” and the Indians thought he
was diseased, they escorted him away from their
territory. It appears, also, that the Indians ” take a
great pride in killing a Christian, and to weare any part
of him where he hath any haire growing, hanging it
about their necks, and so are accounted for valiant
men.”

In some provinces of Mexico, cocoa grows abundantly,
” the Indians make drinke of it, and in like manner
meat to eat. It goeth currantly (in the form of beans)
for money in any market or faire.” Intoxicants
appealed greatly to these people. ” They are soone
drunke, and given to much beastlinesse” ; they hankered
especially after the native wine called pulque, a fermented
drink made from the honey of the flower of a form of
cactus, which had an odour of putrid meat, to which
were added some roots and herbs.

The paper upon which the Aztecs wrote their hiero-
glyphics was made of the fibre of this plant ; the
prickles at the edge of the leaves served for pins and
nails.

By nature they were a simple folk, timid and cowardly :
” They use divers times to talke with the divell, to whom
they do certine sacrifices and oblations.” They also

26 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

sacrificed to a stone, erected on a mound, named Cowa ;
on special days old men and young children were sacri-
ficed to this image.

The Chichimecas wore their hair down to the knees,
and " doe also colour their faces greene, yellow, red,
and blew, which maketh them to seeme very ougly and
terrible to behold.”

The king’s palace contained more than three hundred
rooms, with three principal entrances — one facing West
towards the lake, another East towards the mountains,
the third opening to the South. On stated days a
preacher declaimed to the king and his assembled court
against the errors of their ways. In front of the
principal temple was placed the stone on which prisoners
of war were sacrificed ; over four hundred priests were
attached to this temple. Another temple was dedi-
cated to the God of Air.

Some of their laws were most drastic : treason was
punished by cutting off the legs and arms, and all the
culprit’s children became slaves unto the fifth generation.
In some cases of infidelity the man was burnt alive,
and during the process he was sprinkled with water
and salt ; the women met with rather a less barbarous
fate, for she was hanged. For theft, the culprit became
the slave of the owner of the property. If the son of a
noble dissipated his heritage, he was strangled. A man
found drunk had his head publicly shaved, in addition
to which his house was destroyed ; on the second
occasion of his inebriety he was killed. Among the
various laws, no man was permitted to build a house
without the permission of the king. If a nobleman
made his escape from the enemy and returned to his
own town, he was put to death ; but if a plebeian did
the same thing, he was recompensed.

There was a kind of League of Nations arrangement.

Ancient Nations

27

when messengers were sent to the old people of both
sexes of the offending state, warning them of the awful
consequences of war, and asking them to prevail on the
authorities to remain at peace. Twenty days were
given to make up their minds for second thoughts ;
after another twenty days’ grace, war was declared.

In the year 1450, owing to a cold wave passing over
the country, followed by years of pestilence and famine,
it was decided to offer up sacrifices of human bodies in
a wholesale manner, to appease the gods and to change
the tide of events. The three rulers of the empire
resolved on a state of war between the three states.
Equal numbers of men on each side agreed to fight
for a few days, at the beginning of each month : it was
a triangular combat lasting for years, by which each
side in turn supplied a number of killed as prisoners to
be sacrificed. This answered various purposes : it
indirectly eliminated the unfit, thereby giving the fit
a better chance to live ; the gods were also appeased
(^very eighteen months (their solar year) at their annual
festival.

Meanwhile, in 1462, King Netzahualcoyotzin left at his
death sixty sons and fifty daughters. He was known
as the wisest, noblest, and most powerful king who had
ever ruled, and specially learned in physiology. Accord-
ing to him, all the idols that were worshipped were false
gods, demon enemies of the human race. He recognized
the evidence of God in the Sun and Earth : the Earth,
his mother, was begotten by the Sun, his father. This
king abolished the sacrifice of the people’s kith and
kin, though prisoners and slaves might be used for that
purpose, in accordance with ancient customs.

Human life was held in little account, for in i486 at the
inauguration of their principal temple to Huitzilopochtl,
the principal idol of the nation, the whole of their

28 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

prisoners and captives were mustered from all the
states of the Empire ; the estimated number of these
was 80,000. All these were sacrificed, and their heads
were collected and deposited in niches in the Temple,
specially built to hold them. Besides these, another
20,000 slaves and prisoners of former wars were added to
the sacrifice, making a total of about 100,000.

This supreme god was represented under a human
shape, sitting on a throne supported by an azure globe
(hemisphere), which they call’d heaven. Four poles or
sticks came out from two sides of this globe, at the ends
of which serpents heads were carved ; the whole making
a litter which the priests carried on their shoulders
whenever the idol was shown in public.” There were a
variety of divinities : besides others were the heart of the
Heavens — a mixture of thimder, lightning, and tempest.

Each state of existence was a dream : the present
life a dream which would be realized at the awakening
by death.

It was the priests who excited the people in the name
of their gods, who demanded human flesh. The eating
of the enemy was part of a soldier’s education to enable
him to lay aside all feelings of humanity, to excite his
ferocity and accustom him to the horrors of carnage,
and which, moreover, was the path of his religion.

In 1500 the astrologers predicted that a new Nation
would establish itself in Mexico : these new people, the
Toltecs, were the descendants of a previous king, and
would come from the East. At this time the king’s
son, a prodigy and an inhuman atrocity, at the age of
three pushed his nurse into a well, because he had seen
her in company with a man of the Court. At the age
of seven, he had four of his counsellors strangled because
he loved slaughter. One king, who died in 1515, left
145 sons, of whom 14 were legitimate.

Ancient Nations

29

The punishment of infidelity was strangling, and it
was so rigidly carried out that even a king on discovering
some time after the event that a concubine was married
and had children, immediately caused her to be strangled
for her deception. Long names were composed of two
or three words : such as Mtecuhzoma — severe ruler.
Kings and great men were buried in caves : legend
attributed the caves, or bowels of the Earth, to be the
place whence the ancestors of the race emerged ; and
it was near these caves that the high priest, or great
Prophet lived, who was regarded as being in close
relation with the gods, and whose commands the king
obeyed.

The idols were housed in a chapel. On the occasions
of great festivals, the high priest, known as the Great
Seer,’* made obeisance to the gods, conversed with
them in an ecstatic state, making hideous grimaces and
wri things ; when he emerged from the ** diabolical
irance,” he told those around what the spirits had
Imparted to him. Human sacrifices were held at
the same time, and the high priest would hold the
bleeding heart of the victim against the wooden idol’s
mouth. In an underground dungeon of this temple,
lay the bodies of the great lord chieftains who had
fallen in battle ; be the distance what it might, the
bodies of these chiefs had to be brought to their burial
home. So great was the belief in the happiness of a
future life, that many who were oppressed by disease
or hardship, begged the high priest to accept them as
living sacrifices, and allow them to enter the portal to
the imderground passages, and roam about in the abyss
of darkness until starved to death. It is said that this
underground catacomb extended more than thirty
leagues underground.”

The priests never married, and when children, were

30 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

deprived of their virility. At certain festivals, when they
were constrained to be intoxicated, the king brought to
them the unmarried daughters of the chieftains ; and if
one of these showed later, signs of becoming a mother
and in course of time a son was born, he could be brought
up as the priest’s successor.

It was not customary to sleep on bedsteads, however
noble a lord might be ; instead, they slept on braided
mats and the soft skins of animals, and were covered
with the most delicate fabrics. Their food consisted
of meat killed in hunting : rabbits, deer, armidillos,
etc. ; their bread was made from maize ; they drank
a mixture of chocolate, water, and pounded maize.
Their intoxicating drink was ptdque ; this was consumed
with crushed fruits.

The Rain-god existed in four reservoirs ; in other
words, it flowed from four directions. From the East,
the water was exceeding good, and the rain from it
came at the time of growing crops. From the West,
part of the water was unwanted ; it produced a fungus
which rotted the crops, bringing death and famine.
From the third quarter, the North, the rain turned to
ice or caused floods. In the fourth quarter, the S('Uth,
the rain induced growth, but the crops soon scoicncd
up from heat. It was said that this Rain-god, in Its
efforts to produce rain, created many ill-fated weakhug'?
in the form of dwarfs, who lived in the four r(;scrv^p s
and carried sticks in their hands ; also jars, into which
they poured water from the huge casks, from which
they poured out water as they were commanded.
Children were, in the first or sixth month of the ye^r,
sacrificed to the “ god of rain, tempest, and mountains.”
This sacrifice was called — paying their debts to these gods.

There was also a ritual for confessions to be made
to the Earth-god (“ God of Space ”) ; the idea prevailed

Ancient Nations

31

that by this confession the sinner was purged from liis
sins, and could no longer be reached by the secular law.
The symbol of these particular sins, which they laid at
the feet of the god, consisted of knotting together two
slender threads made of dry maize husks. These
knotted threads were laid on a dish of braided grass ;
while in a long speech they begged for forgiveness.
The priest then gave the supplicant some sort of penance
to perform, told them they were pardoned, and could
sin anew.

As far as can be gathered, for out of superstition the
Spaniards destroyed nearly all the ancient records, T04
years later, two cycles of years — the Toltecs, who were
at that period the dominant people, on leaving their
country became wanderers, until they settled and
founded the city of Toluca in 543 of our epoch. They
built palaces of stone in which their history was engraved ;
in the temple stood the Frog goddess of water, fashioned
uut of a single emerald. These people inhabited more
ilian a thousand miles of land, with magnificent cities
rnd temples ; the ruins of all these were still standing
up to the time of the Spanish conquest.

Their kings were represented as being of pale colour,
a!id bearded as were the Spaniards : in fact, the first
Spaniards led by Cortez, were mistaken for returning
1 oltecs : these people were eventually conquered by
• fie Aztecs. In about 959 a.d. civil war broke out,
-•d during the three years of fighting which ensued,
H \ as c stimated that over three million Toltecs perished,
’ *ith over two million of their opponents ; and the
country was laid waste. Shortly afterwards there was
a f -mine, followed by twenty-four years of drought,
and t^aese people became practically extinct. The
Chichimecas, from the North, took possession of this
country ; it is said that the source of these people was

32 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

Tartary. They claimed the Sun as their father, and
the Moon as their mother : these were their only gods.
The outline which we call the '' Man in the Moon ”
was recognized by the Mexicans as a rabbit, which was
made in it by the Sun, from the Earth in which it was
generated. As was the case of the ancient Egyptians,
the Moon (Isis) was the astral, under the symbol of a
woman. A drunken man, irresponsible for his actions,
was said to have a rabbit in him. The god of drunken-
ness was also named rabbit ” (which seems distinctly
disrespectful to the Moon). To illustrate the numerous
degrees and condition of the inebriated, there were
400 pulque gods ; all of these wore a crescent-shaped
ornament representing the rabbit in the Moon, and
were related to the Earth-goddess — the goddess of sin
and temptation. These gods were associated with the
floral fetes and festivities, as well as with the Bacchan-
alian orgies at harvesting time. When a man died
from excess of alcohol, the others made a feast of him.

Out of their knowledge of astronomy, the Mexicans
estimated the true direction of the four cardinal points,
from the position of the stars on certain dates. Venus
was their principal star, from which they made many
calculations ; this planet they called “ the Lord of the
Dawn,” either when a morning star or evening star.
Sacrifices of prisoners were offered to it, for what object
is not stated. The Snail was the symbol of birth.

Men’s dress consisted of a girdle, the width of a man’s
hand, bound several times round their loins, one end
hanging down in front, the other behind. Over this,
large mantles or capes with a hole were fastened on
the shoulders ; on their feet were sandals of hemp, or
tanned deerskin. When going to war, the warriors
wore*tiger and bear skins. Women wore a skirt from
the waist down, and a sack-like jacket reaching to the

Ancient Nations

33

hips. They also worejleg and wrist ornaments of
feather wo r k, as >vell as arm -rings, bead necklaces, and
ear-r ings.

B ishop Landa says in describing these people : ** They
wo re their hair long, like women ; on the top they burnt
a sort of large tonsure ; they let the hair grow round it,
while the hair of the tonsure remained short. They
bo und the hair in braids about the head with the excep-
ti on of one lock, which they allowed to hang down
behind like a tassel.” The priests of Yucatan,”
observes Bancroft, ''wore their hair long, uncombed,
and often saturated with sacrificial blood.” There was
no complexity in the arrangement of women’s hair ; it
was arranged in long strands, w'hich fell partly over the
breast and partly over the back.

To raise the right arm over the left breast, with the
hand over the left shoulder, was a sign of submission
and of peaceful intent. The North American Indians
expressed the same idea by holding out the right hand,
palm upward ; some raised their hands empty-handed,
or clasped their hands together.

Montezuma, the last king of the Aztecs, was a
magnificent royalty ; he was carried about on the
shoulders of his nobles, supporting a platform richly
ornamented with gold, feathers, and flowers. He never
wore his clothes more than once, and never ate or
drank out of the same vessel twice. He kept all kinds
of birds, fish, and animals ; those specimens he was
unable to obtain he commanded to be fashioned of
gold and silver.

Montezuma (spelt in different ways) was on the throne
of Mexico when the Spaniards began their conquest ;
believing they were the descendants of the true owners
of the land (Toltecs) he surrendered his country to them,
and died a prisoner.

3

CELEBES

In Celebes the native houses were built on posts, reached
by a ladder which could be pulled up, to prevent the
entrance of dogs ; for a dog was considered an unclean
animal, and if by any mischance one touched a
human body, he or she would be obliged to wash away
the contamination in the nearest river. The market
was open for an hour before sunrise, and at the same
hour before sunset. It would have been inexcusable
for a man to be seen in the market ; he would have been
subjected to the greatest insults from the youths and
maidens ; a man’s occupation was supposed to be of
a much more serious nature than bargaining for eatables.

The relatively longish nose of a European was quite
in opposition to their standard of beauty, where a flat
broad nose was chic. So, almost as soon as they were
born, at each meal, infants’ noses were carefully softened
by oil and warm water, and pressed flat. At the age of
five or six, all male children were removed from their
mothers, and placed under the charge of a friend or
relation, lest they grew up spoilt or effeminate. At the
age of fifteen or sixteen they were returned to their
parents, that age being the legal one for marriage.

From childhood and all through their lives, their finger-
nails were stained red. It was also the custom to stain
their teeth either green or red, using the citron for that
purpose. Some, in their desire to out-rival others, even
had their front teeth pulled out, and had gold or silver
ones substituted. The men, universally, were even

Celebes 35

more decorated than the women, with jewellery and
precious stones.

The Sagas of old had instructed these people that the
heavens never had a beginning. The Sun and Moon
always exercised their power, and these two had existed
without jealousy ; until, owing to some quarrel as to
who should be the mightier, the Sun began chasing the
Moon to pimish her ; during this chase the Moon was
delivered of Earth.

From this beginning, a primitive mythology was given
to account for the gods of the Sea, as well as for the
tempests, and subterranean gods who were responsible
for minerals, and for earthquakes and their awful
destruction. The Moon was kept continually busy in
giving birth to new parts of the Earth, and renewing
those which had been scorched up by the heat of the
Sun. Finally, it was believed that the Sun and Moon
had become reconciled, each recognizing their relative
duties to Earth, on the understanding that they would
c>ide between them the Empire of Heaven : the Sun
Teigning for one half of the twenty-four hours — the
day ; the Moon the other twelve hours — the night. If
these people were slightly out in their reckoning, what
matter ? No one can deny that the theory was an
ingenious one.

In doubt as to which religion to adopt, whether
Christian or Mahometan, the king of Celebes was
advised to adopt the one which arrived first in his coun-
try, for it was said : God would never permit a wrong
to arrive before a right, if both were on their way
together. It is related that the Mahometans arrived
first ; so, Mahometans they became, that religion being
acknowledged as the standard religion of their country.

According to Wallace’s own experiences in 1853
the interior of the country, scarcely any native had seen

36

Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

a white man before ; the result being that wherever he
went dogs barked, children screamed, women ran away,
and men stared ; even the pack-horses along the roads
when they caught sight of him, started aside and bolted
into the jungle, while the ugly little buffaloes stretched
out their necks, stared, then rushed away as if pursued
by some demon.

The burning moimtain, the torrent, and the lake were
the abodes of their deities ; also, certain trees and birds
were supposed to exercise special influence on their
actions and destiny. Wild and exciting festivals were
held to propitiate their deities or demons. Villages,
not more than three or four miles apart, had languages
of their own, unintelligible to all the others. ;

A Religious Fanatic (Ceylon)

Facing pas^ 37

CEYLON

At one time the Portuguese possessed part of the coast,
from which they made frequent incursions into the
capital (Candy), on several occasions burning it down.
The king of Ceylon eventually, to secure peace, paid
them a yearly tribute of three elephants : the Dutch,
from Batavia, also came to their assistance, and finally
the Portuguese were driven out ; the price of their
assistance was the installation of the Dutch into the
land vacated, for they seized Colombo, as well as other
places along the coast.

The earliest inhabitants were called Wadas ; they
were primitive nomads, hill men, who neither planted
nor tilled the soil, subsisting entirely on wild plants, and
the prey they trapped ; they had neither houses nor
shelter, but lived and slept in the open. In appearance,
Pyrard, in i6oi, tells us that they resembled the African
negro.

At a later date the inhabitants more nearly resembled
Europeans, and it has been suggested that they originated
from China ; they were wholly lacking in the barbaric
element, both sexes being decently clothed. Their laws
on caste were strict ; but certain trades, such as
carpenters, painters or tool-sharpeners, had, within
certain limits, the same standing as the nobility, although
they might not eat with them, nor marry into their
ranks. Nor would anyone eat with a barber, and men
of this caste were not allowed to be seated.

Potters were a class still more inferior ; they wore no
‘‘ camisoles ” (a sort of gown) ; they must neither be

38

Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

seated nor eat with other men ; but they might pour
water into their mouths from the same drinking vessel as
a man of higher caste, so long as they did not touch it
with their lips. Men who washed clothes were a
numerous class, but their patrons were expected to be of
the 61ite. Weavers ranked beneath the launderers.
There w^ere also soothsayers, astrologers, foretellers of
events, and of good or bad days, of the date of birth
and sex of children, of success or failure of undertakings ;
they predicted, in fact, everything relating to the
future. It was they who beat the drums, danced in
the temples, were present at the sacrifices, consumed
all the offerings to the gods.

Basket-makers were of a still lower grade, as were
elephant keepers. Each married into their respective
castes, and the same profession passed from father to
son for generations. The lowest of all grades being
the paid soldiers ; they were, in fact, considered vile,
because they were slaves and outcastes from father to
son ; they were not even permitted to be served by
other slaves. Knox speaks also of a “ degraded ”
class : vagabonds, pedlars, gypsies, and miraculous
conjurors all in one ; these sycophants with their abject
mannerisms w^ere nomads and wanderers, and were
reputed to be inconceivably incestuous. One of the
king’s punishments was to exile a lawbreaker into the
hands of these vagabonds, and this was looked upon
as something worse than death.

The Cingalese worshipped several gods ; their
principal divinity being Offa Palla Maups, that is.
Creator of Heaven and Earth. Other gods were
subordinate to him, and also included the souls who
had lived an exemplary life on earth. Another of their
highest divinities w’-as called Buddou, whose special
duty seems to have been the protection of souls ; he,

Ceylon

39

having at one time descended to Earth, occasionally
made himself visible under a tree called Bogaha, From
the summit of a high mountain he rose to heaven, where
the imprint of one of his feet is still said to be visible.
The Sun, called /m, was, too, an object of worship,
as was also the Moon, called Hatida,

There were some very ancient Pagodas, possibly
erected more than a thousand years ago, but all
records of the builders are lost ; these show evidence
of an earlier and more energetic race.

The Cingalese had three classes of priests : the first
and highest class, who wore yellow cassocks, belonged
to the order of Buddou ; their principal temple was at
Digligi ; they possessed an immense revenue, and were
a great power and authority in the land. According
to their rule, they ate meat only once a day, but they
must not be aware that any animal had been killed
for this purpose. The second order of priests were
called Koppuh ; they seem to have more resembled lay
priests ; their principal duty was to present rice and
other offerings to the gods (idols) ; otherwise they
apparently lived in much the same manner as ordinary
folk.

The third order were known by the name of Jaddeses ;
their little temples were profusely painted with swords,
armour, and various images. These priests offered
sacrifices to propitiate demon spirits in order that they
should render assistance in the curing of disease ;
although the people did not actually worship these evil
spirits, they had a great respect for their power, and
frequently sacrificed cockerels in order to obtain their
protection.

Knox says : I have seen men and women, so agitated
by some supernatural cause, that they seemed as
‘ possessed.’ In this state some ran shouting into the

40 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

woods as if demented ; some merely sat and trembled
from head to foot, with facial contortions and speaking
incoherently — some died. I can state that frequently
I have heard the devil bay in the night, like a dog.
This has always been the signal, that the king has
ordered the death of a subject. The reasons given that
it is the cry of the devil are these : (i) There is no other
sound from any living thing that resembles it ; (2) The
sound transfers itself from place to place, quicker than
the flight of any bird ; (3) Even dogs tremble at the
sound ; and also, it is common knowledge that it is so.”

Though without any form of clock or time-piece, these
people divided the day between sunrise and sunset into
30 parts, partly by guesswork and guided partly by
one particular flower, which opened regularly about
seven hours before sunset.

All exchanges were made by barter ; every man
working for himself, but never for another.

These people had a strange habit of humiliating
themselves towards others : instead of saying, ” I have
made,” they would observe ” this unworthy dog has
made.” If asked as to the number of their children,
the reply would be — of so many dogs, male and female.

Marriage was merely a matter of convenience ; if
unsuited to one another, they separated in the same
easy fashion : any complication in the way of the
children was easily adjusted, boys remaining with their
father, and girls with their mother. It was quite
common for men and women to have four or five

trial ” marriages, before a final adjustment ; but it
was rare that a man had more than one wife, though
it frequently occurred that a woman had two husbands.

Some of the marriage customs resembled those of the
Tartar tribes : when a man desired to marry, he first
went to the house of his mistress to purchase her clothes.

A'JIKV f (IXV H

Ceylon

41

If the sum offered was a sufficiently good one, a proof
that he was in easy circumstances, she was perfectly
willing to sell them. The same evening he brought
them back to her, and he did not leave his prospective
bride until the following morning. By that time they
had settled the day for their marriage, which took place
at the bride’s home ; at this ceremony they ate out of
the same dish, and their thumbs were tied together.

Custom permitted brothers to share one wife. The
Cingalese not being of a jealous disposition, so long as
a woman favoured a man of equal social standing as
her husband, no one troubled. Men always treated
women with the greatest respect, the utmost licence
being given them. There was, however, one stringent
law ; no wonaan was permitted to squat in the presence
of a man.

In most ways they were a simple, happy people :
all day they sang ; and if awakened at night, they sang
aw ay the hours until the morning dawned. They never
ate meat ; a little rice, with the juice of a lemon to
drink, satisfied their needs.

But among their kings, the lust of cruelty was strong ;
they were autocrats, with unlimited power to carry out
their acts of cruelty and brutality ; in order to make a
man confess a crime, or give the name of his confederates,
they would torture him to death by pulling out his
nails, burning with hot irons, and other revolting
practices ; sometimes elephants were used to mutilate
and crush a prisoner to death. Eventually, his or her
body would be thrown to the dogs, who, usually scenting
a feast, followed in the wake of the procession of people.

Among the higher ranks of the Cingalese, they had
their dead cremated ; but in the lower castes they were
buried in the forest.

CONGO

Congo, situated on the west side of Equatorial Africa,
is called after the great river of that name : it covers a
large area, roughly speaking about the size of France
and Spain, and includes the districts of Loango, Congo
proper, Angola, and Benguela. In this part of the
world Pigmies, or Matimbas, were first seen.

At Gobbi, the capital of Loango, an inhabitant who
was paying a visit to a friend, would, before other
matters had been discussed, be first offered one of his
host’s wives ; at all times moral laxness on the part of
a woman received more eulogy than reproach ; yet the
empire of man was absolute, and every woman was
contented in proportion to the brutality of her man.
Women sat apart while men ate, submission to that
sex being so complete that were she spoken to she went
on her knees. Two or three children were usually the
limit of their family.

According to Merolla, the missionary, when a stranger
visited their huts, the women were obliged to surrender
themselves to the guest for the two following nights.
A Capucin missionary once entered the country ; on
this occasion the people were warned that no females
would be allowed to enter his house.

Marriage at Loango was a very simple affair : a man
merely cast his eyes on a girl, of perhaps seven years of
age, and when she arrived at the age of ten, little per-
suasion was needed to bring her to his dwelling. There
were cases when men refused to sell their daughters at
so tender an age. Should a girl have been seduced

Congo

43

before her marriage, she had, as a matter of form, to
confess this lapse to the chief and receive his pardon ;
the object being to prevent unlicensed freedom of inter-
course, which would have menaced the well-being of
the country, also to compel girls to recognize some sort
of order.

Children w^re bom nearly white, but became negroid
in the space of two or three days ; this at first puzzled
the Portuguese, for when a child was born to a wife
they had taken among the natives, they, at first, believed
themselves the proud fathers ; but the secret was out
two days later.

There have been instances, when from a pure black
pair, a child as white as any European was born. They
were called Dondos, and were presented to the king,
formed part of his retinue, and accompanied him
everywhere ; they were educated to become sorcerers.
These albinos, as Dapper declares them to be, had the
privilege of sitting in the presence of the king, and were
al'A ays associated with every religious ceremony. The
Portuguese placed considerable value on these albinos,
in spite of their being inordinately lazy, and whenever
chance offered, seized and transported them to Brazil,
to be sold as slaves.

No stranger was ever allowed to be buried at Loango ;
if a European died, the people insisted that he should
be taken away and buried at sea.

The king had the same respect paid him as though he
were a god ; he was given the title of Samba and Tango,
signifying a god or divinity. The people implicitly
believed that he could cause rain to fall ; and, in the
month of December when the earth was parched, they
assembled together ; and each man laying presents at
the king’s feet, supplicated him to bring them down
this blessing. A day was then appointed for a gathering

44 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

of all the chiefs with their followers who, fully equipped
for war, made obeisance to the monarch, seated on the
stool of state ; then ensued a terrific din of the beating
of drums, and blasting of trumpets, the latter being
made of elephants’ tusks. If rain fell the same day,
the festivities then reached a stage of the greatest
extravagance and licence.

The most solemn of all their ceremonies was in con-
nection with their drink, called honda or imbonda, an
extraction from a root which was allowed to ferment ;
one of its effects being a condition of intoxication, with
complete loss of the mental faculties ; under the effects
of bonda men claimed to foretell the future.

The Loanese asserted that no one died a natural
death ; it was either the result of some misdeed the
person had committed, or it was brought about by an
enemy. If anyone had been devoured by a tiger, the
disaster was attributed to a Dakkin, or a sorcerer who
had been concealed in a tiger’s skin ; if a hut had been
set alight, a Mokisso, or diviner, had been neglected,
and his wants imheeded.

When it was decided that an enquiry must be made
into the matter, a drink of bonda was taken ; after
which some nine or ten Bonda priests were appointed
to make further investigation. This ceremony was held
in the main street, about the middle of the afternoon,
when a complaint was lodged against some suspected
man. The accused then appeared with his family, for
such misconduct was rarely laid to the charge of a single
individual. While the accusation was being held, the
priests kept up an incessant beating of a small drum ;
the accused and accuser each received a potion of
honda, then returned to his place.

‘ Among several tests used was when some of the root
from which honda was brewed, was thrown on the

Congo

45

ground, and all the accused were ordered to walk over
it ; if one of them in his confused semi-intoxicated
state fell, a great shout went up. The Mokissos were
then thanked for having unravelled the truth, and
received for their services all the clothes belonging to
the accused ; while the unhappy culprits were taken
a short distance outside the village, and cut in pieces.

If the suspected was a rich man, he had the privilege
of substituting a slave to this ordeal ; but if the slave
failed in coming through it without evidence of guilt,
the master had to take his place. Sometimes, however,
he saved his life by the pajunent of a heavy fine. The
poorer classes were, naturally, made the scapegoats;
the priests regulating the ordeal in exactly the way
which suited them best.

In Congo, if a woman allowed a man to take her pipe,
and smoke it for a minute or two, she admitted his
right to her favours. Another custom of the country
was that a man could sample ” a woman for a consider-
able time without actually marrying her ; the same
privilege was accorded a woman, who fully appreciated
this period of freedom, which she was not too eager to
relinquish for the bonds of matrimony, as once married
she became little more than a slave. It was the woman
who cooked the meals, who worked in the fields, while
her husband lolled about or slept ; it was she who
waited on, and served him ; the remains, only, of the
repast were hers.

In cases of conjugal infidelity, a woman’s lover was
obliged to give her husband one of his slaves, or the
equivalent. Infidelity committed outside the village
was, in some places, Mr. H. Ward tells us, considered an
assault ; the man, being the aggressor, therefore, alone
was punished. Women were occasionally used as decoys
to entrap men, who were then seized by the husband

46 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

and, according to the law, sold by him into captivity
or slavery. Marriage by purchase was also frequent,
the market value of a woman being a small pig.

Among other authorities, Lopez observes that since
the introduction of Christianity, in the 17th century,
the population had considerably decreased ; while
polygamy existed they numbered hordes of people ; and
when a war was declared, the king had at his disposal a
million fighting men. Modern writers still affirm that
it w^as to polygamy that the African races owe their
vigorous population, for it was only the strongest and
fittest men who were able to buy wives.

It was customary for all the family to assemble at a
funeral. The ceremonies commenced with the sacrifice
of several fowls, the blood of which was sprinkled inside
and outside of the hut. Then the body was placed on
the top of the building so as to facilitate tlxe escape
of the soul ; the fear being that the soul would remain
behind, and trouble the people in some form or another :
if the apparition of the soul was seen by anyone it was
believed that he would immediately fall dead. This
belief was so strongly inculcated into their minds that
they did, occasionally, die from imagining they had
met the ghost of the dead.

The ceremony of the fowds being ended, weeping and
wailing commenced ; if unable to produce tears, the
mourners had recourse to a particular kind of snuff, which
abundantly produced the desired effect. After a period
of wailing, the scene was suddenly transformed into one
of joy, the mourners eating and drinking the good things
supplied by the bereaved ones. This, too, suddenly
ceased, and the beating of drums called upon the
multitude to dance ; the ball began when a sufficiency
of this excitement was produced ; all the people
adjourning into specified dark places, where a secret

Congo

47

orgy began, with no fear of recognition. On these
occasions, it was impossible for mothers to restrain
their daughters ; nor could even the slaves be prevented
from rushing into this part of the festivities.

There was one remarkable custom associated with this
last act of the orgies : should it be for the master of
the house that these orgies were being held, the widow
granted her favour to anyone who made request ; the
sole condition being, that not a word must be spoken
while the pair were together. It will be noted that these
debauches in the dark w’ere in direct opposition to the
Tahitians, to whom daylight was a sute qua non.

There was one law among these people which seemed
the acme of senseless barbarity : it was forbidden to
see the king eat or drink ; if by the merest accident he
had been observed, the penalty was instant death,
whether it were a man, woman, child, animal, or bird.
This law arose out of a superstition that if any creature
witnessed such a sight, the king would shortly die.
To kill the onlooker at once was therefore thought to
be the means of redeeming his life.

One day, we are told, a boy of seven, son of a chief,
(•11 asleep in the king’s eating-room, and awoke just as
the king was holding his drinking cup to his lips ; the
poor child had, consequently, his head split open with
a hammer ; and a few days later, his body was dragged
by ropes to the public place of execution. Another
little boy, rimning towards his lather to embrace him,
had, under similar circumstances, his head chopped in
half, the priest rubbing the king’s arm with the blood
which had been spilt. Even the king’s own children
w^ere not exempt from this ghastly fanaticism, for we
hear that the son of a king, aged eleven, chanced to
enter the room while his father was drinking. The boy
was removed, fed with the most appetizing food, the

48 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

choicest drinks ; and when he had finished the repast,
he was cut into quarters, which were carried round,
and exhibited throughout the village. Dogs and cats
met with a similar fate.

The date of any event, dated from the number of
seasons since the death of any notorious person. There
was a beginning, a middle, an end of a day : a new and
a full moon ; beyond this, days or years were devoid
of meaning. In the same way, the age of five or six
meant reaching maturity ; after this period there were
no such things as stages, or years of age.

Priests, known by the name of Gangas, signifying
gods of the earth, had a high-priest called Ganza Kitorna ;
it was to this god they attributed the produce of the
earth : he claimed to be immune from death by natural
causes. When, either owing to old age or disease, he
found himself nearing his end, he disclosed to the
successor he had chosen, the secret of his power to
induce fertility, to yield abundant harvests ; this done,
he was publicly strangled. The people were fully con-
vinced that if the office of high-priest should fall into
abeyance, the whole land would become sterile, and all
humanity shortly perish.

In his Voice from the Congo, H. Ward says that their
religion was a belief in good and evil spirits ; but since
the former did not interfere with their happiness, they
were practically ignored. It was the evil spirits who
were in constant attendance, perpetually fermenting
trouble and upsetting matters — ^whom they sought to
propitiate rather than worship, for they were in perpetual
dread of the activities of these malevolent beings. The
witch-doctor was the medium of this propitiation
between man and the spirit world ; it was he who by
counter charms negatived the power of these evil ones ;
moreover, he was a salutary observer into the results

Congo

49

of cause and effect, as well as the present and future.

The act of snapping the fingers was said to have the
certain effect of dispelling any evil spirit which might
have been inadvertently alluded to ; also, by some
obscure reasoning, the right hand, being the stronger
and more useful, was regarded as masculine, the left
hand being feminine.

The sensation of being pointed at was objectionable
to a native, for it suggested the transmission of an evil
wish ; also, when asked, a native had a strong objection
to giving his name. Among some tribes, in spite of
the scorching sun, both the eyebrows and eyelashes
were pulled out ; others were also known to shave their
heads.

For the sake of the hair or bristles on an elephant’s
tail, which were used as ornaments by the women, it
is said that hunters would lie in wait for the animal to
pass through a narrow defile ; and when it was unable
to turn, they cut off the tail ; some of these gallant
hunters would even dock the animal of its tail while it
was grazing, and escape from the animal’s fury by
running away in zigzag fashion.

These may be mere hunters’ yams, although there is
no doubt that elephants were very numerous before the
advent of the professional ivory hunters, and accustomed
to the natives, to the extent of familiarity ; for Lopez
recounts that elephants were known to approach the
village, and out of sheer mischief or fun, lift up with
his trunk some man he met, swing him round, finally
gently placing him on his feet. We have it also from
Dapper, that if an elephant had killed a man, in conse-
quence of being wounded by him, he first dug a hole
with his tusks, then buried him, finally reverently
covering him over with earth.

Regarding the efficacy of the written symbol, Mungo

4

50 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

Park relates that when in Koolkarro ** my landlord
brought out his writing-board that I might write him
a saphie, to protect him from wicked men. I wrote the
board full, from top to bottom, on both sides : and my
landlord, to be certain of having the whole force of the
charm, washed the writing from the board into a
calabash : and having said a few prayers over it, drank
this powerful draught ; after which, lest a single word
should escape, he licked the board until it was quite
dry.”

Before concluding the Congo proper, it will be inter-
esting to hear something of its near neighbours, especially
the Anzikos, and the Jaggas ; with both these people,
human flesh was sold in the market ; this flesh was
either the remains of slaves captured in war, or possibly
the slaves of their own caste, who were considered
suf&ciently well fattened for the market. Indeed,
slaves themselves if they became weary of life, or to
show their contempt of death, occasionally offered
themselves to provide a feast for the king. One reads
of people eating strangers ; but these people of Anzikos
were unique, as their cannibalism extended to their
own tribe, not excepting their parents.

The Jaggas inhabited a vast area reaching south to
the Hottentot tribes, and as far north-east as Abyssinia.
As a tribal mark, they seared lines down their cheeks
with a hot iron ; further, they had a custom of showing
only the whites of the eyes, covering the iris with the
eyelids, thus succeeding in making themselves horrible
and repulsive. The most redoubtable adversaries of
these wild forest nomads, were the so-called Amazons,
in no way similar to the Amazons of South America
or the Philippines, but a race of female warriors who
inhabited Monomotapa, on the frontier of Jagga.
These women accompanied the men in their constant

Congo

5x

raids ; but any children bom during an expedition
were destroyed ; owing to this custon they left no
posterity.

The explanation given of this infanticide was that
they could not be troubled to bring up children, and
moreover they would always be a hindrance in their
constant wanderings in search of food, and their
incursions into villages. To counterbalance the death-
rate, they raided a village, seized the youth of both
sexes, assimilating them into their tribe, while their
parents were eaten. Both the boys and girls had a
ring round their necks until they had proved their
worth and courage, when they were freed and became
entitled to full membership. These Jaggas seem to
have been the lowest type of humanity.

Just as in Europe, one may see a broken column over
a grave, symbolical of a broken life ; so, at some places
in the Congo, the shattered pots at the desert well would,
for the same reason, be piled up to cover a grave.

FIJI

Fijians had many customs which distinguished them
from their nearer neighbours ; and it has been thought
that with their dark skins and mops of black hair,
they had originally been mixed with darker nations of
Asia. Their chiefs were considered to be of divine
origin, their dignity being conferred by the gods. In
Somosomo the kings only were permitted to use umbrellas,
but as a mark of special favour this privilege was shared
by the two high-priests. His Majesty’s thumb-nail was
also, as a sign of superiority, allowed to grow an inch
longer than mere mortals’.

The day on which tributes were paid, was held as a
high festival ; whales’ teeth, cowrie necklets, tortoise-
shell hair-pins (eighteen inches long), cocks’ tail feathers,
etc., were all en evidence on that gala day. Women’s
coiffure had been specially treated beforehand for
months, as were men’s beards. The king and his suite
graciously received the tributes, which were presented
with a song and a dance ; those who — ^proud of their
capital — had paid theirs were afterwards entertained at
a feast provided by the king. Among other forms of
payment were floor-mats — for which they were famous
— ^fishing-nets, weapons of war, etc. ; the list included
‘‘turtles and women”; no wonder the king was
gracious, and in high good humour.

The characteristics of this people were extreme
caution (which they had doubtless learnt from experience)
and astuteness. Anything of a slight was rarely
loj given, although little reference might be made to it

53

at the moment ; but some stick or stone would be put
in such a position that it could be constantly seen, and
would serve as a perpetual reminder of the grievance,
until it could be avenged.

Etiquette, or custom, prevented brothers or sisters,
first cousins, fathers and sons-in-law, and many such
relations either to speak to one another, or to eat from
the same dish ; this custom extended to husbands and
wives.

Marriage was merely a contract. Until a woman
became a man’s property she was as free as men, and
if she had a temporary liaison, both parties could find
a public absolution if they confessed their transgression.
Indeed, this was said to render them safer from any
future sudden death which might be visited on them in
consequence of this amour. Intermarriage within
prohibited degrees was strictly adhered to ; the ideal
mating was supposed to be between the children of
parents who were brother and sister, as the offspring
were believed to be sturdier and truer to the Race.
In fact, these children claimed to be married by Divine
right ; moreover they claimed the rites of this marriage,
in addition to those of their marriage to another indi-
vidual.

Some children were betrothed during their infancy ;
the girl was literally given away ” by her mother’s
brother in the form of a deposit ; gifts were also tendered
to the child’s parents, while the uncle was presented
with a club wherewith to guard the *' property.” Up
to the time they were about sixteen years old, the couple
neither addressed one another, nor sat in each other’s
company ; finally the bride was tattooed, which was
followed by the spreading of the mats, and their friends
seeing them installed thereon. The following day the
important rite took place of tying and knotting of the

54 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

shorter skirt, the symbol of womanhood — ^this public
tying and knotting was the woman’s marriage lines, as
legal and binding as any document. The bridal couple
were then enclosed in their hut for four days, food being
brought to them by friends and neighbours. When
this honeymoon was over, the man never again occupied
the same hut as his wife ; instead of which he slept in
the men’s hall. The pair, however, met on common
ground during any other hours of the day.

In some places, when the marriage had reached
completion, a large bunch of the bride’s hair, over her
temples, was cut off. Should an owl fly over her
husband’s home, it was an omen that he would become
the father of a son. The naming of children was
possibly some peculiarity in the child, some incident
connected with its birth, or a record of family triumphs,
perhaps even a name denoting the folly and downfall
of their enemies. One of an infant’s first lessons was
to strike its mother, lest it should grow up a coward.
Children were also easily taught to kick and tread upon
the dead bodies of their enemies, as well as the children
who were slain.

To a certain extent some of the people had preserved
the tradition of the same ancestry, and although
separated, in various parts of the islands, still claimed
kinship with each other. This clanship was celebrated
by visits of one group to another ; on these occasions
the guests had the privilege of a hospitality, which
permitted them to help themselves to all coveted
possessions — ^without exception. At a future date, on
a return visit, the visitors could, in their turn, help
themselves. It must have been a very costly enter-
tainment, for on each occasion each lost most of his
goods and chattels.

Infanticide was extremely common among the Fijians ;

Fiji

55

jealousy and revenge being one reason given ; shortage
of food another ; but all children thus destroyed were
females. Yet, with a strange contradiction, they fre-
quently adopted orphans, upon whom they lavished
far more affection than upon their own offspring.

The old and infirm were treated with such scant
kindness that they frequently implored their children
to murder them. More especially, as it was believed
they entered a future existence at the same period in
which they left this one ; thus they would be secure
from extreme old age in a future world. Nor were the
sick, unless of high rank, or having rendered great
services, any better off ; for after a few days they were
either left to perish with hunger, or were put out of the
way.

When a Chief was dead or dying, it was a very different
matter ; his relations were immediately notified, and
should he be a powerful ruler, the principal men of his
kingdom came to pay their respects, bringing with them
some present. As in the East, there was a scene of
public wailing ; the women asking the dead such
questions as, “ Why did you die ? Were you weary of
us ? We are around you now. Why do you close
your eyes upon us ? ” We are told of a child of rank
dying, who was under the charge of the Queen of
Somosomo. The body was placed in a box and suspended
from the beam of the principal lure (a praying house
in which the priests lived) ; the best of food was
brought it daily for some months, the bearers waiting
respectfully, as long as an ordinary person would take
in consuming a meal ; at the end of which time they
would clap their hands in the same way as a Chief
when he had finished eating, and retire.

The grave in which a chief was buried was lined with
mats, upon which were laid the strangled bo^es of

56 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

several of his wives, and over these was placed the
chief ; cloth and mats covered the bodies, and earth
filled in the grave. After these hapless women had
been strangled, they were well oiled, their hair dressed
and ornamented ; and vermillion or “ tumeric ” powder
spread on their faces. Common graves were only edged
round with stones ; on some graves were cairns of
stones, or baskets of ornaments to please the one who
lay below.

There were several modes of divination. One being
that after the priest had delivered his message to the
gods, he shook with great violence a bunch of rather
dry cocoa-nuts ; if they all fell off, it was a sign that
a sick child would recover ; if any remained — it would
die. Another method employed was for the priests to
seat themselves on the groimd, their legs stretched out,
with a small club placed between them. If the right
leg trembled first it was a good omen, but if the left,
it was an indication of evil. An omen was sometimes
judged according as to whether a man, holding a certain
sort of stick, sneezed out of his right or left nostril.
Apart from the seer of Fiji, there was the professional
dreamer ; it was, however, apparently useless to consult
these gentlemen unless one was prepared to pay a goodly
sum.

Superstitions were abundant ; if rats scratched at the
mould of a woman’s grave, it might be taken that she
had been unchaste. Large shooting-stars were said to
be gods ; smaller ones, the departed souls of men.
Among other traditions there was one which accounted
for universal death. When the first man, father of
the human race, was being buried by his sons, a god
passed by, who said, ** Do not inter him. Dig up the
body again.’’ The reply was, that as the body had
already been dead four days it had become corrupt

Fiji

57

and must be buried. ** Not so,” said the god, disinter
him, and I promise you he shall live again.” The
deceased man’s sons refused to believe these words,
and perceiving their obstinacy and disobedience, the
god said, ** Had you dug up your ancestor, you would
have found him alive ; and yourselves also, as you
passed from this world, should have been buried as
bananas are, for the space of four days ; after which
you should have been dug up, not rotten, but ripe.
But now, as a punishment for your disobedience, you
shall die and rot.” Oh ! ” the Fijians used afterwards to
lament, Oh ! that these children had dug up the body.”

Cannibalism was rife in the island ; the gods, who were
declared to have voracious appetites, were said to gloat
over hakolo (human flesh set apart for eating), and it is
very certain that the Fijians gloated no less. On the
building of a lure, or the launching of a large canoe,
or taking down the mast of the canoe of a chief who
had come to visit them, human bodies were sometimes
eaten. Mr. Williams, the missionary, says that he
never heard of this delectable food being eaten raw.
As in other countries, captives, and the slain of either
sex usually provided these abominable banquets, but
in this respect they were not over-particular ; those
who escaped shipwreck were also usually eaten, but
individuals who died a natural death were always
buried. When speaking of cannibalism, a Fijian said
that before the introduction of pigs, there were times
when he had an uncontrollable desire for flesh ; when
this lust entered into their souls it was a case of unrest,
and when once acquired it was not easy to break the
habit.

Each island in Fiji had its own gods and superstitions.
The name of the god most known was Ndengei, who
seems to have impersonated eternity ; some traditions

58

Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

picture him with the head and part of a body of a
serpent, the rest of his form being stone, the emblem
of the ever-existing. His abode was in a gloomy cavern
near the north-east end of Vita-levu ; he seems hardly
to have been an attractive personage, as he showed no
interest in anyone but his attendant, Uto ; indeed his
only signs of life were answering his priest, eating, and
moving his position from side to side. But although
he ranked as the most important of the gods, he was
worshipped less than others, and had but few temples.

Some of their other gods had the shapes of monsters ;
among these were Rokomontu, a son of Ndengei’s sister,
who insisted upon being born from her elbow. He showed
his natural benevolence by threatening to devour his
mother and friends, unless he was regarded as a god.
Thangawalu was a giant from birth, and quickly grew
to the height of 6o feet.

Ra Nambasanga had two bodies — one male, the other
female. MbakandroH was the Fijian’s war-god ; it
was believed that were he to use only the pandanus leaf,
he would be immune from all human attack. Ndauthma
was given to stealing women of rank and beauty, by
night or torch-light. Mbafimona was the brain-eater.

The Fijians regarded certain stones and war-clubs as
the shrines of their gods ; a few men, certain fish, birds,
plants, were also believed to have gods dwelling in
them, such as the hawk, shark, eel, etc. Anyone
worshipping a particular god had to refrain from eating
the animal in which he was believed to dwell.

If a priest was also a doctor, a number of hand-clubs,
necklaces of flowers, etc., paid as fees, were collected
in the lures ; portions of victims slain in war were also
often hung up in bunches. There were priestesses in
Fiji, but few of these had lures erected for them, as
they were not considered of sufficient importance.

Fiji

59

Beyond the planting of wild yams, and the wreckages
of strange canoes on their shore, the Fijians had little
belief in the benevolence of their gods, although, they
occasionally presented thank-offerings on their recovery
from sickness and disaster in the shape of clubs, spears,
etc.

No woman was ever permitted to enter a lure, and
from some, dogs were also excluded. To sit on the
threshold of a temple was always taboo except to the
chiefs ; persons of distinction strode over ” any spot
dedicated to the gods ; the remainder crawled over on
their hands and knees. It was believed that sometimes
the gods assumed human form and coiild be seen by
men ; they were generally supposed to appear in the
likeness of some well-known person. Should anyone
meet a god, he was expected when again walking over
the same spot to throw on it a few leaves or blades of
grass, to show that the remembrance had not passed
fi m his mind.

The law of taboo in all parts of the South Seas was the
essence of the despotic rule among the chiefs ; every-
thing of value which they wished to keep exclusively
for themselves came under this heading. In Mbakan-
droii the taboo secured to the priests all the pigs which
had only one ear ; but as this was of small profit to
them, this was made to mean — all swine which had
one ear shorter or narrow'er than the other.

Any gloomy forests or dark caverns were peopled by
the Fijians with invisible spirits on the alert to injure
them ; at one particular entrance of some gloomy
defile it was believed that Lewa-levu — “ the Great
Woman ” — ^was waiting to pounce on any particular
men who took her fancy. They also believed that dead
spirits were able to trouble the living, more especially
when they were asleep ; the ones they most feared were

6o Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

the spirits of dissolute women, those who died in child-
birth, or men who had been slain. Some, also, believed
that a man had two spirits ; his shadow was called
** the dark spirit ” and remained near the place where
he had died. These places were to be avoided, more
particularly when it rained, otherwise the moans of the
spirit could be heard as it sat up, trying to get some
relief by resting its head in the palms of its hands.
Others declared the moans were caused by the soul of
the murderer striking down the soul of the victim,
whenever he attempted to rise.

The Paradise of the Fijians was in Mhurotu, where
they enjoyed abundantly everything which they had
relished best on earth ; but there were many trials
and ordeals before they arrived at their Elysium ;
replies to questions as to their fitness, and whether
they had fully subscribed to the rites and ceremonies
of their tribe. The ghost of a bachelor had to take
special precautions to elude the clutches of the Great
Woman.” The club of the Soul-destroyer, and other
dangers, had also to be escaped ; and according to
their belief, few, alas ! arrived at immortality.

GREECE

The original founder of Athens was Cecrops, who,
among other wise laws for the welfare of the people,
instituted the law of marriage. About 600 b.c. Athens
became a republic ; but it suffered many reverses ;
amongst others, it was twice burnt to ashes by the
Persians. Years rolled on, and after the yoke of
Macedon had laid its claws on the Greeks, it was invaded
by the Romans ; while in the third century, Alaric
and his Vandals displaced the Romans. Finally, about
1450, the Turks took possession of Athens, and did not
slacken their hold, until the Spirit of Greece had
practically ceased to exist.

^ Jtt it

The age of marriage differed widely under different
rulers ; Aristotle considered thirty-seven a suitable age,
while Plato and Hesiod were in favour of thirty since
strength and prudence to the State belong.” Among
maids, the age was much earlier, although rather later
than in other nations ; Aristotle declaring in preference
of eighteen, and Hesiod fifteen.

The Lacedaemon men were compelled to marry before
they reached a given age, for not desiring to increase
the population legitimately was considered a heinous
crime, indicating a want of patriotism. In the event
of their failing to conform to this injunction, certain
penalties were inflicted ; among others, they were
obliged to run naked round the Public Forum, singing
an appropriate song, the words of which would not

62 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

only increase the enormity of their offence, but make
themselves an object of ridicule. Another punishment
for abstaining from marriage, was being dragged round
an altar by a number of women, beating the culprits
all the while with their fists. We hear, too, of a famous
Captain of Sparta, insulted in the Public Assembly, by
a youth of Lacedaemon, for preferring to remain
unshackled from the fetters of matrimony.

These people were forbidden to marry any of their
kindred ; no objection, however, was made in the case
of a collateral relative ; hence nephews married their
aunts, and uncles their neices. Men were in some places
permitted to marry their half-sisters by the same father.

They bathed their newly-born children in new wine,
as this was said to induce convulsions in the sickly,
and only hardy children were wanted in Greece. They
also obliged all fathers to carry their new-born children
to a convention of the gravest Men in their own Tribe.”
If these found them strong and lusty, they gave orders
that they should be educated by the State, and a certain
measure of land was portioned out to them for their
maintenance. Should they, on the contrary, be
pronounced sickly or deformed, they were thrown into
a deep cavern, it being considered they would grow
up burdens both to themselves and to the general
community.

Winter was usually believed the most propitious
season for matrimony, especially the month of January,
or at the conjunction of the Sun with the phase of
the Moon, when the Greeks celebrated the marriage
of their gods, believing that in the matter of generation,
the full Moon was a powerful agent. In ancient times,
women were obtained by purchase, without a marriage
portion, their husbands presenting their wive’s rela-
tions with sundry gifts, of more or less value, which

Greece

63

were called her dowry. But Lycurgas and Solon,
fearing lest women should become too masterful over
their husbands, and married for gain, not love, limited
these gifts to a little inconsiderable household stuff,
and three new suits of clothing.”

It was a custom among Athenian maidens, to offer
their hair to one of their Deities ; when they arrived
at a marriageable age they were also presented to
Diana, the Goddess of Chastity, and laid at her feet
an offering of little baskets of curiosities in order to
gain permission to depart from her allegiance of
followers.

Before a marriage took place, the house was festooned
with garlands ; a pestle was tied to the door, while a
servant carried a sieve, and the bride an earthen vessel
of parched barley, a symbol of her obligation to discharge
lier household duties. She was, as a rule, conveyed to
her husband’s house in a chariot ; the time, we are told,
being evening, in order the better to conceal her blushes.
Torques were carried in front of the chariot, which was
sometimes escorted by singers and dancers, the bride
being seated between her husband and one of his best
friends. Upon their arrival the axle-tree of the carriage
wheel was burnt, symbolizing that the bride would not
be returning to her father’s house.

One of Solon’s laws was that an Athenian heiress
must, in order to retain the estates in the family, marry
her nearest of kin. Should her husband be unable to
provide her with the necessary offspring, she was
entitled to summon the aid of his nearest relation.
Men were compelled, if their wives were heiresses, to
share her nuptial couch for at least three nights a
month ; and above all, under no consideration was an
Athenian woman to '' marry her self into an exotick
Family.’*

64 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

Maids were not allowed to marry without the consent
of their parents (nor indeed were men) ; if fatherless they
were disposed of in marriage by their brothers ; or when
orphans and penniless, their nearest of kin had either
to marry them or settle on them a sum of money.
Should their fathers have rendered service to their
country, they were frequently looked after by the State.
Sometimes Athenian children, like the Lacedaemons, if
physically unfit were killed, or left exposed in desert
places.

In later days the Athenians exceeded any other people
in the number of their gods ; their festivals were in
like proportion, when ‘‘ the Labourers rested from their
Works, the Tradesmen from their Employments, the
Mourners intermited their Sorrows.”

All Theatres were dedicated to Bacchus and Venus,
the gods of sport and pleasure ; to Bacchus they are
said to have owed their origin ; an ivy leaf being the
symbol of that Deity.

In the Biblioth}que des Antiques we learn, that in
Athens the right hand of suicides was cut off ; and
although the body was interred, the usual funeral
ceremonies were omitted.

At Athens there was a certain day appointed at one
of their feasts, when the hair of their children was cut
off and sacrificed to Diana. The Athenian laws did not
permit the sacrifice of men, but among the Cartha-
ginians it was regarded as a holy rite ; so that some of
them permitted their sons to be offered to Saturn ;
this custom at last overspread all nations, amongst
otheis the Greeks. Ovid speaks of the women, who
accompanied their fathers or husbands in battle, as
putting on their finest dresses and ornaments previous
to an engagement, in order to attract the notice of the
conqueror, if taken prisoner.

Greece

65

Diogenes Laertius, in his life of Epimenides, says that
during the life of that great philosopher, a fearful
pestilence broke out in Athens, and that none of their
gods to whom they sacrificed seemed able to help them.
Epimenides therefore advised that some sheep should
be brought to the Areopagus and let loose, and when
they lay down they should be sacrificed to the god
whose temple or altar they were nearest. But we are
further told that in that age there were fewer altars,
consequently the sheep were not near any, which
obliged what the author calls anonymous altars ” to
be built, on each of which was written the inscription,
To the unknown God.”

Pliny, quoting from Isigonus, says that among the
Triballians and Illyrians there were certain enchanters,
who with their looks could bewitch and kill those
whom they beheld for a considerable time, especially
if they did so with angry eyes.”

The Greeks dealt largely in love potions ; among
CH.her ingredients used to gain the heart of their beloved
u'r’s the blood of doves, the bones of snakes, and the
feathers of ” Scritch-Owls.” Some of these potions
were so poisonous that instead of inflaming the blood
of the “ scornful Maid ” they unfortunately deprived
her of her reason. Love-sick boys also tied garlands
and flowers on the door of their lover’s house. Should
these be found untied, it might be taken as a sign that
their passion was returned. Great significance was
attached to uneven numbers, more especially to the
number three, which possessing as it does a Beginning,
Middle, and End, " it seems natural to signify all
Things in the World,” and was particularly acceptable
to the gods.

The Rhodians had a curious custom among their
marriage rites, of sending for the bride by means of

5

66 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

the town-crier. When they arrived at the bridegroom’s
house, a grand feast had been provided with the purpose
of announcing the marriage, refreshing their guests,
and doing honour to the gods. A boy, crowned with
acorns and thorn-boughs, produced a basket of bread,
and sang, I have left the worse and found the better.”
After the bridal pair had been conducted to their
chamber, the bride was obliged to bathe her feet with
water, brought by a boy who was connected with one
of the two families. Their friends now escorted them,
by the light of several torches, to their bridal couch,
when the bride’s mother tied her daughter’s Hair-
lace ” round one of the torches ; at length the wedded
pair were left alone, though still serenaded outside the
door by their friends, who returned again the following
morning. According to the Athenian law they were
obliged to eat a quince between them, to show that
their conversation would be agreeable and harmonious.

Grecian laws on divorce differed considerably : Cretans
were allowed to dispose of their wives, should they be
in fear of too large families. Spartans, on the contrary,
rarely divorced their wives. Athenian women were
allowed greater licence. We read of some remarkable
facts, as when Antiochus was violently enamoured of his
mother-in-law, and by his father’s consent, made her his
wife. Another custom, not infrequent in some parts of
Greece, was husbands borrowing one another’s wives.
Socrates lent his wife Xantippe to Alcibiades. Indeed
Lycurgus, the Spartan lawgiver, thought the “ best
Expedient against Jealousie, was to allow Man the Free-
dom of imparting the use of their Wives to whom they
should think fit.” Not, however, in the case of kings,
whose blood should be unmixed so as to keep it pure.

In regard to irregular infidelity, which was not of
mutual consent, as long as the Nation kept to their

Greece

67

ancient laws, such iniquity was regarded as unthinkable.
When Geradas, a primitive Spartan, was asked what
punishment should be meted out for infidelity, he replied
“ That the Offender must pay to the Plaintiff, a Bull
with a Neck so long as that he might reach over the
Mountain Taygetus, and drink of the River Eurotas
that runs on the other Side.” The enquirer answered,
“ Why, ’tis impossible to find such a Bull,” to which
Geradas smilingly replied, “ Tis just as possible to find
an Adulterer in Sparta.”

In some parts of Greece the penalty for infidelity was
very severe : the delinquent might be mutilated, stoned
to death, or have his eyes gouged out. A much milder
form of punishment was being covered by wool, as
an indication that the wearer was too soft ” to resist
temptation. He was also deprived of all rights as a
citizen, or of managing a public business. Women
guilty of infidelity, were subjected to the harsh punish-
ment of never again being allowed to appear in fine
raiment.

Laws also in regard to thieves were stringent,
especially those who conducted their thefts at night.
Moreover, precautions were taken in regard to He, who
makes search for Theeves in another’s House, must have
only a thin Garment hanging loose about him.” Among
other laws, no one might become an Actor before he
was thirty ; others have declared the age to be forty.

Punishments varied greatly according to different
magistrates. In spite of their often brutal treatment of
infidelity, the ancient Greeks were lenient in the extreme
to concubinage, and were allowed to keep as many
wives as they chose ; although concubines were always
considered as inferior to wives. They were, as a rule,
captives, or had been procured through influence or
money. Dr. Potter tells us how children shared in the

68 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

disgrace and punishment of their father for evil doing ;
this punishment was declared to be through no spirit
of revenge but of justice ; but as the children had profited
by their father’s good fortune, so they should share in
his losses and dishonour.

Entertainments in the primitive days of Greece were
simple in the extreme : not more than four or five
persons were present. It would have shown a great
breach of good manners, had the assembled guests sat
down immediately at the table. Before doing so, the
room and furniture would have to be commented upon.
Relations frequently came uninvited. Some of these
unbidden guests went by the name of '' Flies ” (Latin),
and they were referred to by Roman and Greek
authorities, and described by Horus Apollo as “ the
Hieroglyphick of an impudent Man, because that
Insect, being beaten away, still returns again.” Men
and women were never invited together, as no woman
was ever present at entertainments unless her nearest
relations were present.

The ancient Greeks sat at Meat ” in three kinds of
seats : the first one could hold two persons ; in them
sat the most humble of the guests ; on the second one
each person sat upright with a stool at his feet ; the
third had a slightly sloping back, and on it sat the most
honoured guest. Later, when the Greeks degenerated,
and became more luxurious, it was common for beds
to be moved into the banqueting halls ” in order to
drink with more ease.”

Strangers were treated with great courtesy : " Put
the bewildered Traveller in his way, and be hospitable
to Strangers,” but ” Sojourners ” at public processions
were commanded to carry ” little Vessels fram’d after
the model of a Boat, and their Daughters Waterpots
with Umbrellas,” to shield them from the weather.

Greece

69

Omens were held in great esteem with the Greeks,
these being so innumerable that only a few can be
given. Lightning was regarded, as were most of the
forces of Nature, with the greatest fear ; so much did
they fear it, that Pliny says it was worshipped to lessen
its malign effect, which form of worship was that they
hissed and whistled at it. When any place had been
struck by lightning, an altar was erected and a lamb
sacrificed. Others believed lightning to be a good
omen, when it was seen on the right side, and only a
bad one when seen on the left. Those who were killed
by it were considered to have rendered themselves
obnoxious to the gods ; and were either buried apart,
lest they contaminated the ashes of other men, or
allowed to decay in the place where they fell.

Omens which came from the East were good, as all
the principles of life and heat come from there ; but
omens that appeared from the West were bad, insomuch
as the Sun declines in that direction.

The Rev. S. S. Wilson, in his Sixteen Years in Malta
and Greece, observes that when the right eye winks
and the left recoils,” it was a good sign. Sneezing was
considered to foretell disease, for which reason, in order
to avert the mischief, it was recommended to say God
bless you.” Ammian composed an epigram on one who
had a long nose :

“ His long-beak’d Snout, at such a distance lyes
From his dull Ears, that he ne’re hears it Sneeze ;
And therefore never do’s he say, God bless.”

Others declared that if anyone sneezed at the table
while they were clearing it, it was esteemed unlucky ;
or if another sneezed on his left hand ; but if on the
right one, it was a fortunate omen, Pliny declared

70 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

that the Thessalian magicians destroyed whole harvests
by speaking well of them. Amulets, too, against evil
spirits were much in request. Should anyone be seized
by a violent distemper, it was usual to hang over his
door a branch of thyme and laurel, as likely to keep off
evil spirits.

Some dreams were imputed to the God of Sleep,
whose Abode, Ovid tells us, was “ in a Den as dark as
Hell,” and around him lay “ swarms of Dreams of all
sorts and sizes,” which he sent forth when and where
it pleased him.

In the earliest ages the Greeks had neither idols nor
altars, but worshipped their gods on the top of high
mountains, the reason being that it was nearest the
heavens, and consequently easier for gods to hear their
prayers. Later, they frequently built their temples on
the summits of the mountains ; temples were also said
to have been originally erected as monuments of their
departed.

The dead were held in great veneration, and to the
living was entrusted the honour of their memory.
Should they fail in this respect great would be their
dishonour ; indeed Solon went so far as to leave nothing
to chance, but to have such punished. How under-
standable was this attitude of the Greeks, when one
realizes their belief that the soul could not enter the
Elysian shades, but wandered in gloom and desolation
imtil their bodies were laid to rest in the earth. Should
they indeed remain unburied, one hundred years must
elapse before they were able to enter ** the Receptacle
of Ghosts,” which would keep them secure from the
Furies.

Those who had betrayed their Nation were first stoned
to death and then cast out of their country unburied.

To be drowned at sea would be naturally one of the

Greece

71

Greeks’ greatest terrors. To try to obviate the conse-
quences, they attached whenever it was possible,
valuable pieces of jewellery to the body, with the under-
standing that he who found the treasure and buried the
body with proper funeral rites, might keep at least
part of the reward. In every case it was believed, that
the Deities would inflict severe retribution on anyone
who, finding the body, allowed it to remain unburied.
They were, also, ordered not ‘‘ to speak evil of the
Dead, no not, tho’ their Children provoke you.”

Young men who died in the flower of their youth
were buried in the Morning Twilight,” for their death
was considered as such a fearful calamity that it would
have been thought indecorous, almost impious, to have
subjected them to the full blaze of the Sun.

However contradictory the authorities, it seems
conclusive the ancient Greeks originally buried their
dead ; but later, mainly for the reason that after the
soul’s departure, fire was the greatest purifier, they
burnt their dead. An additional reason being given, that
the soul had an easier means of escape, when it was
separated from the grosser elements. It was this belief
that made the natives of India erect a funeral pyre as
soon as was possible, thus setting free the soul. Occa-
sions indeed occurred, when people were, by their own
desire, placed on the funeral pyre before death had
actually taken place.

Dr. Potter tells us that the Greeks frequently cut
their hair, and threw it on the dead body, or on to the
funeral “pile”; and that Electris found fault with
Helena for sparing her hair, thereby defrauding the dead.
There was also an ancient custom for procuring mourning
women over sixty years of age, at their funerals.
Jeremy called for “ ihe Mourning women, that they may
make haste, and take up awaiting for us, that our Eyes

72 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

may run down with Tears, and our Eye-lids gush out
with Waier'^

They believed in two Mansions after Death ; the
one on the right hand was full of rapture and delights ;
the one on the left was, on the contrary, an infernal
region : for the Souls of wicked Wretches.” The

Furies were always trying to hurry the souls of the
departed into this place of anguish, that they, as well
as those whose rightful place it was, might be tormented.

It was customary to lay out the dead near the entrance
of the house, so that any who passed might be able to
observe whether there were marks of such injury as
might cause death. They had, in common with the
Jews, and many other nations, a horror of being con-
taminated after washing a corpse. In ancient times,
children under forty days were buried within the
threshold of the house. As a money security it was
permissible in Athens to seize a dead body for debt,
and to deprive it of the honour of burial imtil the debt
was paid.

Previous to interment a coin was inserted into the
mouth of the corpse : this was believed to be Charon’s
price for ensuring a safe passage of a soul over the
Infernal River.

The Reception of ( aptain ('ook in fi vPAEE (irAWAiii.

HAWAIIAN OR SANDWICH ISLANDS

This group of islands in the North Pacific Ocean, lies
about 2000 miles to the westward of San Francisco on
the American coast. There is reason to believe they
were discovered by Juan Gaetana, a Spaniard, in about
1550 ; but it was not until over 200 years later that
Captain Cook made their existence known.

It has been assumed that the people were, in the
first instance, one of the scattered remnants of the
exodus in about the 4th century, of a race that overran
Malaya ; others drifted to Fiji and the Polynesian
Islands. It is also suggested that in about the loth
century, through some unconscious urge, a further
migration took place from the Friendly Islands by way
of Polynesia, that found its way to the Hawaiian
Islands : these last being cousins, centuries removed,
seemed subconsciously to have recognized this kinship.
Accordingly they actually made many visits to each
other over a distance of about 2500 miles in rickety
canoes, swept hither and thither by the strong equatorial
currents, out of sight of land and guided it is not known
by what, carrying food and water for a journey which
must have taken them at least forty days.

The principal island of the group, the one on which
the King eventually dwelt, was called Wahoo (the latest
spelling of this being Oahu), the capital being Honolulu ;
while the largest island known as Owhyhee, now spelt
Hawaii, was the island on which Captain Cook was
massacred in 1778. One of the islands named Molokai
is that on which still exists the famous leper settlement,

74 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

with whose name Father Damien was so heroically
associated.

When Captain Cook visited these islands, Tamaahmaah
(spelt in different ways) was king ; one of his attendants
carried a feather fan to brush away the flies ; another
attendant carried his spit-box, which was set around
with human teeth. He was always accompanied by
his principal chiefs, and all sat down together at meals,
the main article of diet being Taro pudding (Poe), a
root baked in a pit with hot stones. It was of the
consistency of paste, and was picked out of a pot with
closed fingers and drawn up to the mouth, after which
the fingers were licked clean. There would be a two
or three finger Poe, classified according to its consistency.
Besides this delicacy, salt fish was served and pork
consecrated for the King's sole use.

Whenever his Majesty passed the people were
obliged to uncover their heads and shoulders ; the
same ceremony took place whenever anyone passed or
entered the King’s entrance, or any house which he
had ever entered. When the King’s food was carried
from the cooking-house, the bearer of the dish called
out Noho,” meaning literally sit down,” and every-
one within hearing had to squat on his haunches. This
ceremony would have been peculiarly trying, it being
necessary to bring the water from the mountains, a
distance of five miles, had not the calabash carriers
who were obliged to call out Noho,” run past as
quickly as they were able, so as not to detain the people.

When the King’s brother died there was public
mourning ; the natives cut off their hair, and went
about completely nude ; indeed many of them, more
especially the women, disfigured themselves by knocking
out their front teeth, and branding their faces with
red hot stones. A scene of great licentiousness also

Hawaiian or Sandwich Islands 75

took place, from which, however, the Queen and the
deceased’s widow were exempt.

There were only two classes, the chiefs and the
people ; the chiefs owned all the land and the priests
collected the taxes. This took place at harvest time,
November, and was the occasion of many festivities —
dancing and games, which lasted a month. Their house
of worship was called Morai, in which the priests lived,
and during the tax-collecting festivities the King
remained in the Moral.

Archibald Campbell, who resided in Wahoo (Oahu)
in 1810, says that a curious ceremony took place before
the King entered this Moral. He was obliged to stand
until three spears were rapidly darted at him ; the
first he had to catch with his hand, and with it ward
off the other two. Should any unforeseen accident
occur, and the King lost his life, it was merely put down
to one of those evils to which human mortals are prone.

According to Captain Vancouver, this King Tamaah-
maah was so dexterous with a spear, that he once saw
him in a sham fight ward off six spears closely follow-
ing one another. Three he caught with his hand, two
he broke by parrying them with his spear ; the sixth,
by a slight inclination of the body, passed harmlessly.

The King had two Queens, who were sisters. It
is recorded that his eldest son, Tianna, had been
put to death, in consequence of a liaison with one of
his wives. To make kites was one of Queen Tamena’s
favourite amusements ; these gigantic kites were made
15 or 16 feet long. This lady preserved the bones of
her father, wrapt up in a piece of cloth, and slept with
them by her side. Another of the Queen’s amusements
was to make her attendant women drunk ; by the
end of this entertainment she was in a more intoxicated
state than they.

76 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

The natives were described as of moderate height,
stout and robust ; their skin of a nut-brown colour and
they were extremely cleanly. Bathing was the remedy
for all their ails. Their dwellings consisted of simple
square huts with thatched roofs ; there being no
windows, their only light was obtained through the
door. The inside was an empty space, but the walls
were decorated with cooking utensils. On a platform
about a couple of feet high, and covered with native
mats, one part of the household slept ; the remainder
found room, as best they could, on the ground at the
other end of the hut. Women only ate in this house,
which was probably while they were cooking. Men had
their meals apart from the women, and for them a
separate eating-house was required, which was also
shared by the men of several families.

Fish was mostly consumed raw, fresh out of the salt
water, and was supposed to promote a sort of scaly
scurf on the skin. These people were expert fishermen,
especially with nets ; they also caught fish by poisonous
herbs, a device known universally. For lighting
purposes they used the “ candle-nut,” the fruit of a
shrub, about the size of a horse-chestnut ; these were
strung to a piece of bamboo, and required the individual
attention of one person to prevent them all flaring up
together.

Ava was an intoxicant which all the people indulged
in ; the spirit distilled from the tee-root was also
popular ; all the chiefs possessed stills for the production
of this spirit, which was called Lumi, resembling rum.
The stems of their pipes consisted of a hollow tube of a
species of vine ; tobacco grew in abundance.

Womenfolk were not permitted too many indulgences,
and under no circumstance might they eat from the
same dish as the nobler sex. It would be wasting a

ANOH OK THK SaNDWIc H ISLAN[)S WKIH ^^ASKI:^ RoWER

Hawaiian or Sandwich Islands

77

delicacy to give them pork, or turtle, or shark, cocoa-
nuts, bananas, or plantains, so these were taboo ; but
they could indulge in dog’s flesh, or even fish. And in
1794, a number of sheep were left in the islands of
Hawaii, an arrangement having been made with the
King that after their numbers had sufficiently increased
the meat should not be taboo to the women ; but with
the proviso that though the women should be allowed
this food, it should not be from the identical animal
partaken of by the men.

An authority on these matters says : Notwith-

standing the rigour with which these ceremonies are
generally observed, the women very seldom scruple to
break them ” ; no doubt when there was no likelihood
of their being found out. It will be hardly necessary to
add that the highest in the land, the most independent —
the Queen, lover of all good things, was the greatest
transgressor.

The laws of marriage were very elastic, and extended
to polygamy. All wives were jealously guarded against
the attentions of neighbours and local residents ; but
they were valuable assets to offer to visitors, when it
was desirable to cement their friendship by this tie.

Women wore a simple waist cloth called Pow, about
three yards long, and reaching below the knees ; they
adorned their heads and necks with wreaths of sweet
smelling leaves, purple, yellow, and white. When they
swam out to the ships the dress was removed, and held
by one hand out of the water to keep it dry. Men wore
a small girdle made of native cloth : this girdle was
called Maro,

In Hawaii the natives indulged in a dance, which
somewhat resembled what we called ballet ; on a special
occasion the ladies of the court took the principal
parts. The dance space was a small square in the open,

78 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

surrounded by trees and huts. The performers decked
themselves in their finest array, and men their cleanest
Maros, Women wore so many petticoats as to resemble
a crinoline ; their lower limbs up to their knees were
bound round with green wreaths, while their shoulders
were also adorned with the broad leaves of the Tee tree.
The Queen, though very anxious to take a part in these
moving pictures, was not allowed to be present.

The wives, daughters, and sisters of the principal
chief were permitted to seat themselves in the front.
For music, five men beat time with a short stick on
long tapering spears, each part of the spear giving a
different tone ; they also sang. There were four acts
to the performance, and seven performers ; as well as
speaking and singing there were appropriate gestures.
The principal heroine was a captive princess, and each
time her name was pronounced, someone had to remove
an article from her body above her waist. At the close
of the last act each performer also removed some article
above her waist. On other occasions men only danced
in masks.

The first three acts displayed an astonishing accuracy
and agility, graceful action in dancing, spirit, and
vivacity. Vancouver laconically observes that had
the performance finished with the third act, we should
have retired from the theatre with a much higher idea
of the moral tendency of their drama, than was conveyed
by the offensive libidinous scene, exhibited by the
ladies in the concluding part.” This nhooarah began in
the late afternoon, and lasted about an hour.

Superstition was the powerful agent by which law
and order were kept ; actual punishment was very rare.
In cases of theft the diviner would go through certain
ceremonies, as for example burning a nut in a fire ;
while it was crackling, he would say such words as

Hawaiian or Sandwich Islands 79

kill or shoot the fellow,” by then the thief usually
confessed. If during this awful ceremony the thief
did not confess, the circumstance was reported to the
King, who issued an edict throughout the island that
a certain person had been robbed, and that those who
were guilty had been prayed to death. The finale was,
that usually the culprit pined away and died.

Their principal god was the God of Creation, called
Etooah : but they had seven or eight subordinate gods,
represented by images of wood as ugly as sin, having
their mouths all stuck round with dogs’ teeth. One
was sixteen feet high and three feet broad, carved out
of a single tree : this god had a horrible expression, a
large mouth extended with great teeth. Some were
made also of stone, or a kind of wicker work covered
with red feathers ; all were fearsome to look upon, and
intended to excite terror.

Many of the natives believed that the first beings
were descended from the gods, who were the original
inhabitants of the islands. According to the priests,
the first man was created by Hanenca, a female deity,
in other words of unknown ancestry. But the most
popular belief was that their ancestors came over in
canoes from Tahiti. Human sacrifices were offered up
on their going to war, but the usual sacrifice was pigs.

The value of a pig was estimated by its length : a
fathom pig, measured from the end of the snout to
the rump was valued at two axes, a piece of sea-horse’s
tooth, and a fathom of European cloth. A smaller
pig was measured from the elbow of one arm to the
tips of the fingers when the other arm was extended.

Vancouver was privileged to take part in a solemn
ceremony of consecrating the pig, but he was obliged
to conform to the same customs as the natives. During
the taboo period of two nights and one day, he had to

8o Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

refrain from the company of women ; partake of no
food except that previously consecrated ; stay on shore
and not get wetted by salt water.

The sacred rite was performed in the Morai at dawn
of day, in the most profound silence, even that of birds
and animals. The King murmured a prayer with the
greatest solemnity ; in the middle of it he suddenly
took up a live pig which was tied by the legs, and with
one swing dashed it to death against the ground ; there
must be no cry from the victim. This part of the
service was a sort of introduction to the gods, after
which further ceremonies took place. A large quantity
of all kinds of food was then consecrated for the use of
the priests and chiefs.

There was in Hawaii a peculiar connection with the
number 40 ; they counted from 40 to 400, then to 4000,
and afterwards to 40,000 ; every number was a fraction
of 40 or 4. These people also reckoned time by the
Moon.

Cook’s description of the King when he came on board
the Resolution is worthy of note : ‘'He was of a graceful
stature, about six feet high, rather corpulent, and
tattooed in several parts of his body, in manner like that
of other warriors. His skin was remarkably scaly ;
his hair grey, and cut quite short. He had very little
clothing, and on his head he wore a cap of feathers.”

When one of the sailors of Cook’s ship died, he was
interred by the natives. The grave was dug four feet
deep, the bottom being covered with green leaves. A
hog, roasted whole, was placed at the head and at the
feet, with a quantity of plantains, bananas, and bread
fruit. Finally large stones were rolled over the grave,
and a stage erected over it, on which were placed more
ready-cooked provisions.

At first when Captain Cook arrived with h.m.s.

A AI/W OF Till- SANPWirif Islands, Dancing

Facing page 8i

Hawaiian or Sandwich Islands 8i

Resolution and Adventure, he was received with friendli-
ness by the natives of Owhyhee (Hawaii), up to the
moment of his departure ; but having to return to his
anchorage, owing to his being buffetted about by the
winds, he met with great hostility, the people stealing
every article they could lay hands on. This led to
open aggression, finally ending in his death at the hands
of his previous friends. It is said that Captain Cook
had been impatient and severe, and had been warned
by the women that his life was in danger.

Some mutilated and gnawed remains of this illustrious
navigator were collected from various quarters and
reverently committed to the deep ; the remainder had
been consumed by the warriors. It might be surprising
to read that after a very drastic retaliation on the
islanders by the next officer in command, he reports,
“ We returned to the ships before night loaded with
Indian spoils . . . and having the heads of two of
their fighting men stuck at the bows of the pinnaces,
as a terror to the enemy.”

in January, 1796, eighteen years later, h.m.s.
Providence, with Captain Vancouver, anchored at the
same bay where Captain Cook was assassinated, and
was quite satisfied with his reception from the natives.
He and his crew were treated with uniform goodwill
and kindness. Tamaahmaah sent them ample supplies
of hogs ; by this time he wore European clothes ; and
on February 25th, 1794, he had ceded the Hawaiian
islands to the British Empire.

6

HOTTENTOTS

The country of these people is at the South end of
South Africa ; they first became known to the Portu-
guese at the end of the 15th century, but they were
not visited until about 1600, when the Dutch on their
way to the East, touched at the Cape of Good Hope ;
hence Boers were their first guests.

The Hottentots were at this date divided up into a
number of tribes ; they were nomads, migrating from
place to place, following Nature’s harvests in search of
food for themselves and fodder for their cattle, burning
the dried-up grasses as they left. They were a trust-
worthy and hospitable people.

The Khirigriquas were one of their most numerous and
powerful tribes. It was in this country that the Cerasis,
or homed snakes, were reputed to have existed.

The origin of the Hottentots is obscure ; they declared
that their first parents came in through a door or
window : the man was called Noh, the woman Hingnoh,

Men had conspicuously big feet ; those of the women
were, on the contrary, small and delicate. As beauty’s
decree had gone forth in favour of flat noses, the children
had, from their infancy, their noses pressed flat.
Another peculiarity of these people was, that they never
cut the nails of their hands and feet.

Ancient writers declare that their forte was extreme
laziness ; they were even too lazy to think, and it was
only in urgent cases of necessity that they would help
themselves. Inveterate smokers, they smoked to the
point of temporarily obscuring their vision.

Hottentots

83

After a youth was initiated into manhood, he might
from that time eat with his father ; he had also the
privilege of being allowed to beat his mother ; and,
strange though this may appear, the more violence he
showed her, the prouder she was of her son. The only
explanation they offered for this was — that it had always
been so. Another of their customs was to kill off the
old people. Infanticide was also practised.

Women wore a cone-shaped hat, men a flat cap.
Both were highly ornamented with any odds and ends
such os buttons or saucer-shaped medallions, or strings
of beads ; a mirror was a much prized possession.
Men carried, suspended from the neck, a small bag or
purse, containing a knife, pipe, tobacco, and a Daccha —
a small stick burnt at both ends, which they used as a
talisman. These little bags were sometimes made out
of an old glove obtained from a European. Women
carried a similar bag, but it was larger and hung from
the waist.

Men, women, and children were slaves to the habit
of smearing their bodies with butter or mutton fat
mixed with ashes ; this compound was removed as
soon as it became dry. The nobility of anyone depended
entirely on the quality of the butter or fat used — Whence
they ranked according to smell ; yet for all their love
of oil, they had a horror of fish oil.

Although mentally lazy the Hottentots were remark-
able for their fleetness in running ; they had also a
great reputation as hunters. Packs of them would
run down a lion, rhinoceros, or elephant, and after
surrounding the animal they speared it to death. The
honour conferred on successful hunters, was associated
with very revolting details connected with the filthy
ingredients and garbage, with which they were smeared.

These people lived in kraals ranging from four to

84 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

five hundred inhabitants in each ; the roofs of the huts
were so low that it was not possible to stand, so everyone
squatted ; and there being no other outlet for the
smoke of the fire to escape, it came out through the
door. To both sexes the eating of pork and fish without
scales was taboo ; as also among men, not women, was
the eating of rabbits or hares. A beast’s entrails,
partly boiled in its own blood, to which was added some
milk, they considered their most dainty dish.

Hottentots were excessively dirty and covered by
lice of extraordinary dimensions. Since, they said,
these parasites live on us, why should we not, as an
act of reciprocity, feed on them ? During hard times
they boiled down the discarded skin shoes of the
Europeans and, according to their tastes, enjoyed the
meal this afforded them.

In their dances the musical accessories were a one-
string bow with a quill attachment through which the
performer blew. Women’s fingers were used in the
place of drum sticks, "while there were the usual cries
of encouragement from the women who formed the
orchestra.

A circle was formed solely of men, who joined hands.
Inside this circle only one couple took part. Facing
each other, and wade apart, they commenced stamping
with their characteristic motion, at the same time
gradually drawing nearer one another. When they
finally met this dance ended ; and another couple were
allowed into the circle until every one had had a turn.

Marriages were arranged by the parents : should the
girl take a dislike to her future selected partner, there
was still one way of escape open to her ; for if she was
successful in resisting his seductions, in spite of being
obliged to remain in his company until the following
morning, she was free from the bargain. Marriage

Hottentots

85

between cousins was prohibited, the penalty for this
offence being death. In spite of their love for their
own music, it was never heard at their marriage
festivities, but after the company had feasted, a pipe
was lit, and handed round, each one taking a few whiffs.

If a widow re-married she had the joint of her little
finger cut off, and every time she re-married she lost
another joint. The birth of male twins was a source
of great rejoicing ; if they were twin girls they were
destroyed ; if a boy and girl, the latter was placed on
the branch of a tree and left there to perish. If a child
was still-bom it was regarded as a most evil omen and
the parents hastily moved their hut.

When the woman had recovered she daubed herself
with cow-dung, which was considered a form of purifica-
tion and, as Lady Augusta Hamilton tells us, after
** being thus delightfully perfumed, and elegantly
decorated with sheep’s guts,” she was permitted once
more to visit and receive company.

The Hottentots kept a sort of fighting bull ; these
W’ould, like sheep-dogs, when there were signs of a
stranger, call in all the cattle and drive them into the
kraal. They acted also the part of watch-dogs, and
woe betide a strolling stranger should he fail in treating
them with respect.

Every family manufactured its own pottery, made of
a clay obtained from the material of which ants’ nests
were made ; when mixed with ants’ eggs it formed
a paste ; the ware was then shaped by hands and baked
in a hole in a forest. Sewing needles they made from
the quiU of a bird’s wing ; thread was obtained from
the small nerves of animals.

During the Dutch occupation, in the middle of the
17th century, the usual mode of measuring out a new
farm was to pace the ground ; half an hour’s striding

86

Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

in each direction from the position of the homestead
was the regulated extent of the farm. After a lapse
of a century and a half, the Europeans acquired posses-
sion of nearly the whole region inhabited by the
Hottentots.

The essence of these people’s religion was their
implicit faith in their traditional customs ; it became
an instinct to preserve them. There was also a great
fear of consequences from their neglect. They appar-
ently believed that this instinctive feeling remained
active after death, and that this spirit jealously watched
over its rites among the living, both for the welfare of
the individual as well as for the community.

When many inhabitants were stricken by death, the
cause was attributed to some salutary message from the
spirits of the dead to mend their ways. The witch
doctor was probably the reasoning brain of the tribe,
and could trace the source of pollution : the kraal was
moved elsewhere ; the sacrifice of an animal or a slave
was necessary as a means of maintaining friendship
with the guardian spirits. A portion of the feast was
then consumed by the people, the remainder went to
the witch doctor, while the share of the guardian spirits
was the spiritual food suggested by the slaughtered
animal.

There was some form of court of justice to decide
disputes ; the verdict depended entirely on the majority
of supporters on either side. In fact ail the inhabitants
formed themselves into a jury. In serious criminal
cases the sentences might be banishment from the
kraal ; in this case the culprit vanished into the bush
and was seen no more, being an outcast from all other
kraals. Possibly capital punishment might be inflicted
on the offender ; when this occurred it was considered
that he had sufficiently atoned for the crime, and his

Hottentots

87

family also were forgiven. All property was inherited
by the eldest son ; it was never divided, neither did
any woman inherit.

There was a certain kind of flying two-horned beetle,
for which these people had a kind of veneration ; it was
about the size of a small child’s finger, had a green
back, and was speckled underneath red and white.
When one of these beetles was seen, all gathered round
it and addressed it in endearing terms as a special
symbol of heaven.

I'he Hottentots had a belief in a Creative God called
Gounja — that is, God of Gods, but they had no forms
or ceremonies connected with worship. To their idea,
he was simply a great and good man in whom all trust
could be placed. His abode was, they believed, a long
way beyond the Moon. They reverenced the Moon,
and offered sacrifices in honour of each new phase,
praying to it for weather favourable to the pastures.
The Moon was, in fact, the visible symbol of the greater
and invisible spirit.

These Hottentot people are now nearly extinct.

JAVA

Java is an island in the Eastern Archipelago. The
Javanese claim a Chinese origin, and physically there
is a strong likeness between the two nations. Marco
Polo, who lived many years among the Tartars, heard
from them that Java paid them regularly a yearly
tribute.

The Javanese were an essentially ease-loving nation,
and work did not greatly appeal to them. They had
also an immense sense of their own importance, and
never permitted an equal to sit an inch higher than
themselves. The king was an absolute autocrat, dealing
out life and death as it pleased him. For every murder
committed he was paid a fine, hence crime was remark-
ably remunerative to his majesty, more especially as
the relations of the murdered man usually kept up the
feud and tried to kill the murderer or his relatives ;
if they succeeded, further fines were natiurally forth-
coming. The usual weapon they carried was called
criss, a sharp and very edged knife about two feet
long. These weapons had handles of wood or horn,
curiously carved in the shape of a devil ; these handles
were worshipped by many of the people.

A Javanese might have three wives, and for each
wife he was obliged to keep ten female slaves ; he
could indeed have as many more as he pleased, and
use them as concubines. Many of the better class
spent their days sitting cross-legged, cutting and
carving sticks, which they did remarkably well. They
were great eaters, although their slaves were given

Java 89

nothing more palatable than herbs and roots, and rice
soaked in water.

The toilette of the dlite consisted of a loin cloth of
fine painted calico, and a tuke, or turban on their
heads. On rare and very special occasions they wore
a close-fitting coat of cloth, velvet or silk. The lower
orders wrapped round their waists a kind of girdle of
calico, which had always to be at least a yard wide ; if
they covered their heads it was with a flat velvet cap,
but liaving fine heads of curly hair, they for the most
part preferred to show it. The women were all bare-
headed, but the better classes tucked theirs up in a
fashion of their own ; they wore the same kind of loin
cloths of painted calico, and were most particular to
have a piece of the same material over their shoulders,
with the ends hanging down.

Most of the Javanese were very religious, although
they seldom went to church. Some of them were
Mahometans, but many believed in Nahy Isa or the
Prophet Jesi s. The poorer orders had little knowledge
of any religion, but believed that God had created the
world and everything in it, and that he meant well
by them ; whereas with a philosophy which had much
to commend it, they felt it more prudent to propitiate
the devil, who certainly did not mean well by them,
and who would most assuredly do his best to injure them.

After the Spaniards were established in Malaya, the
customs of the Javanese somewhat changed. Among
the many petty chieftains in the island, those of Bantam
had always been the most powerful ; but the most
beautiful town was Tuban, where all the commerce
from Holland was established. Here the Dutch kept
high court, and lived as princes ; here, too, special
elephants were kept for the mutilation and slaughter
of culprits ; these elephants were also taught to wield

OO Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

a weapon held by their trunks, and thus were used as
soldiers.

Every conceivable article of clothing was procurable
at Bantam : one quarter of the town was set apart for
men’s apparel, another for that of women; in this
quarter no man was permitted to enter. At this town
there were ten women to one man, hence concubinage
naturally flourished. Their offspring were, however,
considered legitimate, although they were frequently
poisoned. The king, as will be seen in Sumatra,
usually took possession of female children after the
death of their fathers ; in order to frustrate this, girls
were often married before they reached the age of eight.

Women of the higher class were very carefully guarded ;
a son, after he had reached manhood, was not permitted
to enter his mother’s apartment. Women seldom went
out ; when they did, any man they met, except the king,
was obliged to hide until they had passed. Every man
of rank always walked about in state followed by his
servants : one carried the umbrella over his master’s
head, another the box of betel which he chewed at
intervals. Betel is the leaf of a creeper — chewed with
it is the areca nut from the palm tree. A little packet
is made with the leaf as an envelope, and contains a
portion of nut and a pinch of quicklime ; this mixture
is put into the mouth and chewed. So strong a hold
had this habit over the women also, that they kept a
packet of betel near their beds to chew during the
night ; they also kept a slave to perform the elegant
duty of scratching their backs.

Among their strange customs was that if a house
caught fire, it was the work of women to extinguish it ;
the sole part that men played in the disaster was to
stand on guard armed, lest any robbery was committed.
If during a quarrel a man killed his adversary, dreading

Java

9t

the punishment which might await him, he promptly
proceeded to run amok, killing right and left ; not
even children were spared as he darted away in despera-
tion. We hear that he was very seldom taken alive.

So suspicious were these people of one another that
they slept with their criss under their pillow. A brother
would not even receive his brother without having his
criss handy, not to mention three or four throwing
knives, in regard to their trading they were equally
suspicious and crafty. These people were extremely
ingenious. They wrote on leaves of a particular kind
of tree, with a sharp pointed instrument ; these leaves,
placed between pieces of wood, thus formed a book.

The most popular pastime among the Javanese,
indeed one common to all the Malay races, was cock
fighting. In Java they even held fighting matches
between quails ; for these combats the male was con-
sidered too small and timid, so they made use of the
more irascible hen birds, and often hazarded considerable
sums on the result. The sport of kite flying also
enthralled them ; the object of each player in this
game being to break the string of his adversary’s kite.
In any small town it was no imcommon sight to see
fifty or sixty paper kites being guided against each
other.

A traveller in the latter part of the tenth century
affirms that combats between wild beasts were arranged
for the amusement of the Javanese, those between the
tiger and buffalo being the most popular, each animal
having been previously excited or irritated to its
utmost fury.

At about this same period it is related that criminals
who had been condemned to death were pitted against
tigers. The imfortunate men were clothed in a sort
of yellow jacket and armed with the native criss.

92 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

Stavorinus relates a singular circumstance which befell
a criminal condemned to be devoured by tigers : When
he was thrown into a ditch in which were the tigers,
he fell astride upon the back of the largest of these.
The animal exhibited so much astonishment and alarm
that he made no attempt to injure the man, and none
of the others dared attack him in such a situation.
This incident did not, however, save the poor fellow’s
life, for the ruthless prince gave orders that he should
be killed.

In 1912 two men were thrown to wild beasts by order
of the Sultan ; each was armed with a criss, the point
of which had been blunted. One of the criminals was
immediately torn to pieces, but the other maintained
the fight for nearly two hours, and finally succeeded
in killing the tiger.

MALAYA

The Malayan Archipelago comprises a group of islands,
the largest being Sumatra, Borneo, Java, Celebes and
the Philippine Islands; the Malayan race, moreover,
extends over the northern side of New Guinea. Only,
however, the inhabitants of the Malay Peninsula, that
portion of mainland lying to the south of Siam, will be
dealt with. Singapore lies at the extreme south end
of the Peninsula.

Whatever may have been the origin, the name Malaya
implies something superior. The inhabitants were
partially Mahometans, but they were not devout by
nature and hankered after what their Moslem law
strictly forbade in regard to witchcraft ; while mixed
with this religion was a strong element of their ancient
paganism.

There were, seemingly, no customs nor marriage
laws, no barriers to intrigues. The primary public
policy was the increase of the population ; special
officials were told off to beat a drum from darkness to
dawn, for the purpose of instilling into those of a ripe
age the desire to fulfil their marital duties.

The women, like most women, loved jewellery, and
delighted to decorate themselves with bracelets, ear-
rings, and necklets of diamonds and rubies, as well as
all kinds of pearls. These were easily procurable for
the better classes ; but as there was no coin currency
riches were measured by nutmeg property. Malaya
being the only country, except a few surrounding
islands, in which nutmegs grew ; the women were

94 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

obliged sadly to use their precious ornaments as a
means of barter. Men exhibited their vanity by
perfuming themselves with sweet-scented oils ; both
sexes had large eyes with very long lashes, which they
accentuated by the use of dark pigments.

The characteristics of these people sound the reverse
of attractive, for they are described as being suspicious,
untrustworthy and totally lacking in gratitude.

Ternate is the chief island of the group ; in it were a
large number of albinos, but there were very few men
of that description. Apart from this physical peculi-
arity a malformed person was unknown ; all the
inhabitants were, on the contrary, symmetrical and
well-formed.

A very ancient form of veil was worn by the women,
which hung from the forehead in six strips, completely
covering the face ; it is claimed that this form of head-
dress descended to them from the times of Abraham.
Among other treasures greatly prized was a two-headed
snake of gold, said to be of very ancient origin.

Propitiation of demons kept these people exceedingly
busy, as well as causing them much uneasiness. When
starting on a journey, should either a funeral be the
first object they met, or the scream of a night-bird be
heard, or a crow fly over their heads, it might be taken
for certain that misfortune loomed in the near future ;
to prevent which, necessitated a return to their homes.
Another of their superstitions was that they could never
be induced to sell any fish caught in a new net, although
they might eat it themselves or give it away. Girls were
not allowed to eat a certain very luscious fig, nor any
double fruit, lest they gave birth to twins. And if a
woman died in childbirth, or when she was enceinte, it
was believed that she would be changed into a kind
of demon.

Malaya

95

Another of their curious beliefs was, that in the hair
lay unseen forces which would sustain them under the
most grievous trials, and give them courage to confess
any crime they had committed. Consequently, having
their hair shaved was the greatest possible disaster, as
it entirely deprived them of this mental strength. The
people kept professional necromancers ; women usually,
of course, consulted them in regard to their amours.
These sorcerers had a great reputation, more especially
in the preparation of poisons.

As late as 1854 ^ Lomhack that anyone

found in a house after dark was liable to be stabbed
and his body thrown into the street. Laws were
exceedingly drastic in regard to breaking the marriage
contract : a married woman might not even receive a
cigarette from a stranger under penalty of death.
More serious infidelity was punished by the woman and
her paramour being tied back to back and thrown into
the sea.

In Amhoyna, as soon as a child was born it was given
a birth name, independently of what it would afterwards
be called ; this birth name was invariably associated
with some circumstance connected with the moment of
birth. Children were always carried on the hip. A
son inherited all his deceased father’s goods, and only
allowed his mother and sisters sufficient for their
subsistence. Any title the father happened to possess
went to a collateral relation.

The inland natives, those who lived in the mountains,
were of a much larger build than those on the coast or
near rivers. They were also more vigorous and barbaric,
and most of both sexes went about nude. They inter-
laced the shell of a cocoa-nut into their hair, at the top
of their heads, and surrounded it with white shells ; these
same white shells they used as necklets, and on the

96 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

toes of each foot. They also wore very large yellow
ear-rings, and they never dressed without a branch of
evergreen twisted round their arms and knees.

Among these mountaineers, it was an inviolable law
that no young man was allowed to cover his nakedness,
nor put a roof on his house, nor marry, nor do any work.
On each occasion of any special undertakings he brought
a human head to the village ; this offering was placed
on a stone consecrated for that purpose. The degree
of nobility of a man depended upon the number of
heads taken. In ** head hunting the young men went
in groups of eight or ten ; each was camouflaged by
green branches and moss ; and so well disguised, that
they were indistinguishable from the forest growth.
These gallants waited for any passer-by, and after
killing him and cutting off his head, they made a solemn
entry into the village, where the young females shouted
with triumph and exultation, dancing round the braves,
and an orgy of rioting ensued. Later the heads were
left hanging from the houses. Occasionally one of the
braves had the peculiarly unpleasing experience of hav-
ing his own head chopped off ; in this case his body
was thrown into a bush as being unfit for decent burial.

Most of their wars were caused by some imagined
insult to their dignity. For example, when visiting a
neighbour, tobacco and pisang (a form of betel nut)
would be offered ; should, however, the host either
purposely or by accident omit to offer the leaves neces-
sary for chewing the pisang — then the trouble began.
The insult could only be condoned by a suitable present ;
otherwise, it became a case of a family feud which
might continue through many generations.

Again, should any child of the host blow his nose, it
was regarded as an outrage ; if the host’s children
threw something at a stranger, or laughed at him, a

Malaya

97

present must be made to atone for such outrageous
behaviour. If the father refused compensation, possibly
some two or three years later the insulted party would
return for satisfaction. Should the offender die in the
meanwhile, his offence would be passed on to his
descendants. Sometimes the whole village sided with
the aggrieved party (although in the meantime he may
have actually died), and retaliated by taking the heads
of the aggressor’s villagers, without the smallest connec-
tion with the injured.

When starting for war, should the occasion demand
such an extreme step, they called upon the heavens,
the earth, sea, and rivers, as well as all their ancestors
to aid them ; then, turning towards the enemy, they
told them that they would not attack them clandestinely,
like robbers, but give them fair warning.

These same mountaineers of Amboyna ate snakes,
rats, and frogs ; they also made a fermented drink from
sago. But, being cannibals, their most dainty food
was human flesh. An old king named Titaway, in
1687, confessed that in his time he had eaten many of
his enemies, but that they had first been roasted. He
admitted that among all sorts of meat none was so
delicate as the human body, more particularly the
cheeks and hands. And Mr. Henry Hawke, evidently
alluding to cannibalism, says quaintly, “ I have seen
the bones of a Spaniard that have been so clean burnished,
as though it had been done by men that had no other
occupation.”

7

MARIANNE ISLANDS (Ladrones)

The Marianne islands were also discovered in 1521
by Magellan, but were later on re-named in honour of
Marie-Anne of Austria, Queen of Spain, when taken
possession of in 1565. Although only about 900 miles
from the Philippines, the personal characteristics of
the inhabitants more resembled a mixture of Japanese
and the aborigines of the Philippines, known as Tagales,
The principal island of the group was Guaham. Before
the advent of the Spaniards the natives lived an abso-
lutely natural life, untrammelled by any laws except
their few customs. They were unaware of any other lands,
and thought themselves the only people in existence.
De la Harpe shrewdly observes that they were entirely
without the many things which we consider necessary
for existence, and which of course it was thought
expedient to thrust on them for the sake of trade.

Their only bird was a species of dove, which they
tamed and taught to speak. It is related as an astound-
ing fact that until 1566 they had never seen fire ; their
first introduction to it being the burning of one of their
houses on the occasion of Magellan’s visit. At first
they thought it was a kind of animal which attached
itself to and ate up wood. So greatly were they in
fear of it that they would never approach a fire, which,
as they said, by its very breath made their bodies sore.
However, they very soon learnt to master and apply it.

When the Jesuits first visited these islands they were
densely populated. The inhabitants are described as a
peaceful people of remarkably fine physique, free of

Marianne Islands (Ladrones) 99

disease, and living to a very old age. The necessities
of their life were but few, and their additional wants
easily satisfied. It was this contentment, this want of
ambition for anything more, that gave the missionaries
so much trouble ; the people were simply not interested
in anything beyond what they already possessed.

At their gatherings they feasted off fish, fruits, and
roots, drinking a liquid made from rice and cocoa-nut.
At their dances they always recounted the deeds of
their ancestors. Women decorated themselves with
shells threaded with very fine roots, pieces of tortoise-
shell hung from their necks, flowers were intertwined
in their hair ; and, it is related, that whatever decora-
tions and leaves they hung about them, rather dis-
figured than ornamented their figures. Musical sounds
were produced by using shells as castanets, and doubtless
their soft and cooing voices, combined with their
suggestive gestures, made them most alluring to the
onlookers. Men were completely nude, shaved of all
hair with the exception of a little tuft, about three
inches long, on the top of their heads. Beauty and
adornment in women were represented by black teeth,
and long hair which was whitened by lime. Yet with
all their simplicity they reverted very strongly to class
distinction. As is the case in every land, some asserted
themselves so much above the others that they became
tyrannical in the extreme ; so select, indeed, did they
become, that they considered it a crime to associate
with, or marry into, the ** lower” classes; even in
regard to speech, the plebeian ones were obliged to make
their requests from a distance. But the rarer blossoms
were extremely courteous when addressing each other
(typical of the Japanese) ; when meeting, the salutation
consisted of affectionately patting each other on the
stomach.

100

Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

Wlien a man died his children did not succeed, but
his brother, or his sister’s son ; the argument being that
no man could be certain whether the children of his
wife were also his, whereas the children of his sister
must be hers, and consequently came of the same stock
as himself : this custom ensured the property being
kept in the family. Almost from their infancy, children
were quite independent of their parents.

These people were extraordinarily expert with their
light canoes. The only arms they possessed was a
club, made of the arm and leg-bone of a man, with a
pointed end, and so sharp that the slightest stab would
kill. They were also such experts at stone throwing
that they could almost penetrate through trees. Men
never forgave or forgot an insult, although a long time
might elapse before they took revenge. Homicide and
theft were regarded with the greatest abhorrence ;
houses could therefore be left open with perfect safety
and nothing out of them would ever be missing.

But there was a fly in the ointment of this gentle
people which became visible in regard to their marriage
customs. A man might take as many wives as he chose,
but he usually found that one was sufficient. This
commendable abnegation was not so surprising, when
one learns that women were so much mistress in their
own houses that a man was not even allowed to touch
anything without obtaining her permission. If he lost
his temper, or did any of the things he ought not to
do, the woman either chastised or left him, taking her
children and her chattels with her ; thus at any moment
a man could be left by a capricious woman. For her,
all became once more serene when she and the children
adopted another man. If a man’s wife had a liaison,
his only remedy was separation ; he had no right to
punish his rival

Marianne Islands [Ladrones) lot

Should, on the other hand, a man have an affaire,
his wife called upon all the women she could muster ;
each armed herself with a stick, and put on her husband’s
hat. Thus they advanced towards the habitation of
the guilty husband, tore up his crops, treading them
under foot ; and having broken everything they could
lay their hands upon, they finally beat him and drove
him away. He might, indeed, consider himself lucky
if, in addition to this ill-treatment, they did not pillage
everything he possessed and destroy his dwelling. This
drastic system of dealing with man’s frailties was hardly
calculated to produce in young men a yearning to
marry ; they found considerably less discomfort in
hiring girls, or buying them from their parents for a
piece of iron or tortoise-shell. These girls were kept in
a separate establishment, which their lovers visited when
they desired.

It was in these islands that Dampier first discovered
the bread-fruit tree. He describes the fruit as being
the size of a man’s head ; when cooked it tasted like
our white bread with a flavour of banana, and was
very nourishing.

There were no animals whatever in these islands,
not even a mouse ; the only animal food was a kind of
wild-fowl. But Nature had in all respects released
these people from any struggle for existence. Time
in their lives had no meaning, for beyond the division
of a day into an almost equal night, each day monoton-
ously succeeded another ; while the season’s clock of
ripening fruits, was merely the procession of pleasant
occurrences, and taken as a matter of course.

Very few people could be more eloquent in their
bereavements, or more lugubrious in their wailings at a
death : they wept, literally, in torrents. Their cries
were heart-rending ; they also abstained, at least for

102 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

seven or eight days, from all kinds of food, during which
period they kept up a doleful dirge. On a necklet or
a cord a knot was tied on each anniversary of a lost
child or parent. The wails of tribulation were devastat-
ing in the case of the death of a woman belonging to
the exclusive class. Trees were uprooted, houses
burned, canoes destroyed ; paths were strewn with
fresh palm branches ; while one and all lifted up their
voices in some extravagant and poetical rhapsody
regarding his affliction, such as, ** There is no more life
for me now ” ; The Sun which animated me is
eclipsed ” ; ** The Moon which illuminated my way is
obscured ” ; The Star which guided me is extinguished.”

These people had great belief in the power of their
magicians to control the elements, produce rain or sun-
shine, as well as to cure diseases and bring success in all
their undertakings. They had also, apparently, some
vague ideas of a Devil somewhere, in a place where he
could torment them — and of a Paradise; but their
future destiny in either place did not seem to depend
so much upon their manner of life as on their manner
of death. Those who died a violent death would find
themselves in a place inhabited by the Devil ; but
those who died a natural death would eat of the fruits
of Paradise, where sugar-cane and cocoa-nuts were even
more delicious than on earth.

MARQUESAS ISLANDS

These islands were discovered by the Spaniards in 1795
and named after the Marquess de Mendana, viceroy of
Peru, under whose protection the expedition started.
Nikerheva is the principal island of the group ; and the
inhabitants of the Typee (Taipi) valley are the most
noteworthy. It is recorded that cannibalism was
prevalent in all these islands, the menu consisting of
slain enemies only ; and as Typee signifies eaters of
human flesh, it is possible that this particular tribe
were specially addicted to this gruesome form of repast :
they have undoubtedly been credited with murdering
and eating all the crew of a vessel which visited those
waters.

They are a brown, coffee-coloured race with straight
hair, but as in Tahiti, the natives yearned after fairness
of skin. The juice of the popa root was much resorted
to as a cosmetic for this purpose, and in addition to
acquiring what nature had denied, they screened them-
selves, when possible, from the direct sun rays. Five
or six times a day they bathed, drying their luxurious
hair after each time of bathing, then washed it in fresh
water, finally perfuming it with a powerfully scented
oil made from the cocoa-nut.

The distinctive characteristics of these islands is the
European caste of features ; and all voyagers call
attention to the symmetrical and physical beauty of the
Typees ; their dress was merely a minimum covering,
easily put on, easier removed.

Russell, in his Polynesia, tells us how they excelled

104 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

in tatooing, though very young girls had few of these
ornamentations ; but as they grew older they had their
right hand and left foot most elaborately tatooed ; this
was also an indication that they were married. Among
men who had reached very mature age this tatooing
had been so frequent, that according to Herman Melville
they occasionally presented the most repulsive appear-
ance, their skin covered by deep indentations and
fissures. By long practice of this custom their bodies
sometimes became a dull green hue ; in addition their
heads were quite bald, while their feet were unlike any
ordinary feet, their toes standing out in every direction.
The reason of this does not seem very clear, it may
possibly have been due to their constant use as fingers.

The principal food of the Typees was one of the many
preparations from the bread-fruit tree. This fruit is
the size of a citron melon, and after the rind has been
removed resembles white pulp ; the leaves are of
enormous size, scalloped at the edge. When nearing
the stage of decay their colour becomes of a many-hued
richness, and the natives wore them as strikingly
picturesque head-dresses. The Typee maidens delighted
in flowers, and not being less vain than most maidens,
they wore dainty single hybiscus in their ears, and
necklaces, coronets, bracelets, etc., of intertwined leaves
and blossoms.

They were magnificent swimmers — even infants of a
few days old were taught to swim — so had no use for
canoes, which were taboo for women and would have
meant instant death.

A favourite drink in the South Sea Islands was called
arva, made from a root, in much the same fashion as
kava was made in Tonga : its primary effect was stimu-
lating, then it acted more as a narcotic. But in the
Typee valley it was usually drunk at their convivial

Marquesas Islands 105

gatherings as an ordinary stimulant. Their music
must have suggested something weird, for besides drums
they had nasal flutes, which were blown through the
left nostril, the other being closed by a muscular
contraction.

In regard to their marriages, a man might have but
one wife, while a girl was allowed at least two husbands
— ^probably because the males far outnumbered the
females — yet any form of marriage was usually dispensed
with. The girls were wooed at a very early age, and
when, as frequently occurred, they tired of one another,
a third party in the shape of a man swooped down and
carried them off to his hut ; it would seem this mhiage
d trots worked very harmoniously.

We hear of a curious observance which was practised
every night. The inmates of a house, as they sat on
their mats, would commence a low dismal chant — not
song — ^with music made by two small sticks tapped
slowly together, and held by each person present for
an hour or two. Whether it was a religious rite or
merely to induce sleep is not known.

The religious rites of fanaticism and horror were held
in the Hoolah Hoolah ground in the taboo groves of the
valley. At each end of this spot was a high terraced
altar, guarded by a multitude of frightful idols. Gigantic
trees stood in the centre, their huge and gradually
spreading trunks railed in with sugar canes, from which
the priests declaimed their pagan teachings. The fear
of taboo guarded the secrets of their sacrificial rites:
should any female enter or even touch with her feet
this sacred ground, she was immediately killed.

Apart from the rites held in the Hoolah Hoolah ground,
the Typees held funeral orgies from which all sense of
decency was omitted : dancing, singing and feasting
lasting for two days after the burial. They had mastered

lo6 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

either the art of embalming or “ fuming ” ; the bodies
were hung up on the side of the house close by the
skulls of their enemies killed in battle.

During the past half a century, the number of these
classic people are dwindling to extinction ; the debased
remnant have lost all affinity with the unique environ-
ment of the beautiful valley of Typee.

THE NETHERLANDS

The Dutch were described in 1760 as being tall and
strongly built, but in his Geographical and Historical
Grammar, Mr. Salmon says, ** both Men and Women
have the grossest Shapes that are to be met with any-
where, or rather no Shape at all. Nor is their Motion
less disagreeable than their Shape ; they move heavily
and awkwardly.” He is kinder to their features and
complexions, and allows the Boors or Husbandmen are
industrious, *‘but slow of understanding; not to be
dealt with by hasty Words, but easily manag'd by soft
and fair, and yielding to plain Reason if you give them
Time to understand it.”

The seamen were, apparently, a mannerless crew

which is usually mistalcen for Pride.” Sir William
Temple accounts for their surliness from their con-
versing with Winds and Waves, that are not to be wrought
upon by Language.”

The dress of these people, with the exception of the
officers of the Army, seems to lack entirely in elegance :
** Their Coats have neither Shape nor Pleats, and their
long Pockets are set as high as thir Ribs ; but that
of the Women appear something odd to us, their Coats
coming no lower than the Middle of their Legs.”

Their many taxes included a Land-tax, Poll-tax and
Hearth-tax. The amusements of the Hollanders were
varied, but they seldom play for any Thing but Drink,
and the Tavern where they spend their Winnings always
concludes the Diversions of the Day. Hans never
cares to go Bed without his Dose.” They seem to have

io8 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

been a stolid people ; quarrels were rare, revenge still
rarer, while the sensation of jealousy was almost unknown :

Their Tempers are not airy enough for Joy, nor any
unusual Strains of pleasant Humour, nor warm enough
for Love. . . . The Men are addicted to Drinking,
which some think necessary in this Foggy Air, for their
Health as well as the Improvement of their Under-
standings.”

The inhabitants of Holland may be divided into the
following classes : The Peasants or Boors, who cultivated
the land ; the M arriners or Schippers, who supplied
their ships with produce; the Merchants or Traders,
who filled their towns for the purpose of Barter ; the
Renteeners, or Men who lived in the principal cities
upon their Rents, or Interests of Estates previously
acquired by their families ; Lastly, the Gentlemen and
Officers of their Princes.

As an example of their hospitality, the following was
written by an English gentleman (1691), attending the
Court of the King of Great Britain after a voyage to
Holland : When you are entered in the house, the

first thing you encounter is a Looking-Glass ; no
question but a true Embleme of Politick Hospitality ;
for though it reflect your selfe in your own Figure, ’tis
yet no longer than while you are there before it. When
you are gone once, it Flatters the next Comer, without
the least remembrance that you e’er were there.”

A custom regarding the period of childbirth, suggests
both thoughtfulness and philosophy and is thus described :

When the Woman lies in, the Ringle of the door does
penance, and is lapped about with Linen, either to
show you that loud knocking may wake the Child, or
else that for a month the Ring is not to be run at.
But if the Child be dead, there is thrust out a Nosegay
tied to a stick’s end ; perhaps for an Emblem of the

The Netherlands

109

Life of Man, which may wither as soon as bom ; or else
to let you know that though these fade upon their
gathering, yet from the same stock the next year a
new shoot may spring.”

A French voyager in the Pays-bas Unis (1815), tells
us that the Dutch believed in a numerous progeny
which indeed outnumbered any other country in Europe.
The customs in regard to their period of engagement
differed in every town and village. Among the bourgeois
classes, the fiancee sent round to all her relations and
friends some hypocras or wine, in which cinnamon, bark,
and sugar were infused in bottles ornamented with true
lovers’ knots in ribbon, symbolizing “ fiancee’s tears.”

Women multiplied plentifully, as we have heard.
Immediately their first child was born, the father
announced the tidings to all friends and relations. In
Harlem and Enkhnisen there was attached to all the
doors where a woman was lying-in, a small board
covered with rose-coloured silk, above which was a
piece of lace folded in the shape of a fan. This board
was never removed until the mother was able to rise
from her bed ; during the time it was there no creditors
nor officers of justice were allowed to disturb the
husband, be the pretext what it might.

A curious sight might sometimes be seen in the
streets : children dressed half in black and half in
white, with chamois leather gloves up to their elbows.
These were orphans, and their bizarre appearance was
to call attention to their existence, and to move the
heart of the generous. One might also see a number of
lugubrious faced men in sombre black clothes with a white
cravat, a long trailing crepe hat band, an umbrella under
the arm, a cigar in the mouth, with pencil and mourning
cards, who ringing at the door-bell would bear the
invitations of the obsequies of those who were no more.

no

Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

The houses were built of light material, with a central
room to which no sunlight ever penetrated, but was
protected from the cold by being surrounded by other
rooms : this was the family’s sitting apartment. The
staircase had the steepness of ladders or of ships’ gang-
ways. On entering a working man’s house a few
articles of furniture were seen scattered about the
receiving room, but where were the beds ? — ^behind a
cupboard or door, let into the wall, one above the other.

The mention of Holland was associated with the
Kermesses or Fair. Teniers has popularized them in
his pictures but not idealized them. These outbursts
remained for long the passion of the people ; they are
described as the unleashing of the human heart of
primitive humanity. They took place both in towns as
well as in country districts. Men who at one moment
were respectable citizens suddenly became frolicsome
and irresponsible. A crowd might be looking at some
illumination, when suddenly the old cry, Hos, Hos,”
would be started. This refrain acted like magic ; a sort
of frenzy ensued, the people joining arms, commencing
to jump, stamping their sabots, and jostling their
neighbours. Everyone indeed was in a state of delirium,
and not a few were given up to complete sottishness.

These Kermesses were not the Hollanders’ only form
of delirium ; for travellers in the i6th century wondered
more than a little at the wild excitement in which the
whole of the population behaved during the skating
season, when the inland waters became solid enough to
support them.

They had other channels in which they displayed an
unconscious sense of humour. If a man kissed a girl
without her sanction, she complained to the Burgo-
master. The matter was seriously referred to the
Tribunal at Utrecht ; from here it was passed on to

The Netherlands

III

the Court of Appeal at Amsterdam, who were indulgent
enough to exonerate the criminal — ^because a kiss was
a justifiable expression of admiration, and moreover
such a motive was not criminal.

At Gouda is to be found the long “ church-warden ”
pipe, which the bridegroom smoked on the eve of his
marriage ; and to show his capability in smoking and
handling the pipe he laid it back without breaking the
old clay stem. This pipe was the emblem of the
husband’s dignity ; it also indicated that in the house
he was lord and master. Smoking was a national
trait ; frequently a child of eight might be met, walking
between his parents and smoking a cigar.

In this land were water and fire vendors ; and in
the early hours servants were sent out to buy a quantity
of boiling water for breakfast, or some hot embers for
lighting a fire.

Among their superstitions Monday was considered an
unlucky day to commence a journey.

A traveller to Holland early in the 19th century,
remarked on the over scrupulous neatness and cleanli-
ness of the people of Broek ; the paving of the main
street was of fine polished stones and bricks of various
colours, resembling a mosaic, and kept spotlessly clean
and polished. The houses were like dolls’ houses,
looking as if they had just come from the toy makers ;
each painted in various bright colours with pavements
of various coloured stones, resembling the contours of
flowers and streets, and everything, everywhere, care-
fully washed and polished every day. But to keep
their houses so spotless, at the threshold of the house,
the visitor was expected to exchange his boots for a
pair of slippers.

Cows were regularly stabled, curried and rubbed
down ; the tails of the cows were all turned up and

II2

Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

secured to the rafters of the roof. But the strangest
custom of all, thought this traveller, was that they
never opened the principal apartment of their house
except at the baptism, the marriage, or the death of
any member of the family. At other times it was
hermetically closed and kept sacred.

At Amsterdam, criminals whose offences were not
capital were placed in the Rasphuis, their employment
consisted of sawing wood. If they were indolent or
refractory they were shut up in a cellar into which
water was allowed to run ; so unless they worked at a
pump which was fixed there, they must be drowned.

The Spinhuis was another singular establishment.
In this building one part was devoted to women whose
offences were not of an aggravated character, and
another separate part for serious offences. Young ladies
of even high families were sometimes sent to the former
place, on account of undutiful behaviour or domestic
offences. They were compelled to wear a distinctive
dress and work a certain number of hours a day.
Husbands who had to complain of the extravagance of
their wives could send them to the Spinhuis to acquire
more sober habits ” ; on the other hand, a wife who
brought a complaint against her husband might have
him accommodated with lodgings in this charitable
Institution.

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS

The original stock of these people was presumably an
overflow of Asiatics by way of the Behring Straits.
When Europeans first became acquainted with these
Indians, they had spread, fan-like, and occupied an area
extending about 1500 miles north and south, and 2000
miles across the North American Continent. They were
located on both sides of the Rocky Mountains.

The most Northerly groups were the Blood Indians,
Crees, while the Camanchees and Norahoes were on the
borders of Mexico. The renowned Sioux Indians
occupied the central area.

In appearance they were all fundamentally alike,
usually of a dark copper colour, with very long black
hair, especially the men. When first known, they num-
bered about sixteen millions, but in 1833 they were
reduced to less than two millions. To use their own
figure of speech, We are travelling to the Shades of
our fathers, towards the setting Sun.” All these people
erected tents of hide, called Tipis ; all dressed in the
skins of animals, and all vied with one another in the
gaudiness of their apparel, and decorations of porcupine
quills and birds’ feathers, especially those of the eagle.

The custom of scalping was universal ; when a man
was killed in combat, or trapped in their perpetual raids,
the victor would cut about four inches off the skin of his
enemy’s head, with the hair attached — a deed of which
the victor was mightily proud. The scalp having pro-
claimed him to be a warrior, it was then dried, and
finally secured to the end of a spear, or to a war club ;

8

114 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

it might even be stitched to his clothing as an ornament,
and became ever after an honoured trophy, and an
evidence of distinction. It was also honoured by a
public orgy and dance, after which it was returned to
its owner.

Another universal object of pride among the Indians
was their pipe ; not only was it an emblem of dignity
but of utility, being from 4 to 5 feet long, and decorated
in various colours ; the bowl part was made out of a
special red stone, said to have been obtained from a
sacred quarry. This quarry seems to have been a sort
of Mecca, to which every man from every part, was
expected to journey once in his life, both for the sake of
the pipe-bowl, and to satisfy the needs of his soul. It
was, moreover, a universal Sanctuary, for according to
an injunction from the Great Spirit at this quarry, there
should be no blood shed : enemies would meet as friends.

All North American Indians were daring hunters and
expert riders : some cultivated the soil but sparsely,
trusting entirely to the products of Providence. It was
this trust in the spirit of Nature which made them be-
lieve that it existed in various secret articles and forms,
which, in the manner of a mascot, helped them in their
undertakings ; it made them collect all kinds of odds
and ends, to make what they called “ good medicine.”
This included a specific antidote against someone else’s
” good medicine.” One kind of good medicine ”
ensured a good day’s hunting, or a good day’s killing, or
success in any enterprise. This word, ” good medicine,”
had a very wide meaning. All the Indian tribes hated
and dreaded the white man, because their " good medi-
cine ” was superior to their own ; in other words, he had
more knowledge, more enterprise, and was better
equipped against misfortune.

Indian chiefs as well as others had collected all kinds

North American Indians 115

of articles which they called " good medicine,” but if a
medicine man, soothsayer, or diviner professed to cure
and failed, his medicine became ‘‘ bad medicine,” and
he was immediately killed. A man’s particular power
of healing, or his talisman, was revealed to him through
a dream, and apparently took the form of some creature.
As soon as he reached man’s estate, he retired to the
woods, fasted, meditated, and prayed to the Great Spirit
that a vision of his totem animal should be revealed to
him. After this vision appeared, he made every effort
to procure it ; and when he had done so, this mascot
was hung on his body for the remainder of his life ; it
was even buried with him, and accompanied him to his
happy hunting grounds. If it should happen that he
lost it, or was deprived of it by an enemy, he could only
acquire good medicine ” and regain his former prestige
by slaying another man, and looting his “ good medi-
cine.” Whatever its imaginary properties may have
been, it was something that stimulated his bravery, and
for which he fought as he would for his own life.

The Blackfeet were the most numerous and powerful
of the tribes ; they were acknowledged to number fifty
thousand. Of middle stature, very muscular, and deep
chested, they spent a great part of their time hunting for
enemies among their neighbours. In every tribe their
wigwams were so set up as to be removed at a moment’s
notice : the mode of transport was by trailing large
poles tied to horses, on which were platforms ; dogs
were also used to trail smaller ones, a platform being
built proportional to their size.

The women of all tribes parted their hair in the
middle, and painted the line of separation with vermilion.
The men of the Blackfeet had two partings on the top
of the head, leaving a middle lock of hair about two
inches wide ; this fringe ” they allowed to hang as far

ii6 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

as the bridge of the nose, when it was cut square. The
skins they wore were dressed and usually dyed black,
as also their footwear — Whence the name " Blackfeet.”

The Crow Indians were very near neighbours of the
Blackfeet, but their language was totally different ;
their hunting ground was at the head waters of the
Missouri, and on the north-west of the Continent of the
Indian groups ; they occupied their spare time in
hunting for their neighbours’ scalps, as well as losing a
great number of their own ; consequently they became a
rapidly diminishing people. All the skins with which
they built and decorated their wigwams were orna-
mented with designs, illustrating their deeds of valour,
while their tents were decorated with scalps and skulls.

The Crows were reputed to be a more honourable race
than most of the other tribes. Their hair grew exces-
sively long, sometimes dragging on the grass ; but not
contented with that, they even promoted its growth by
the constant use of bears’ grease : '' Long-hair,” a chief
of the tribe, had hair which measured lo ft. 7 ins. long ;
women cut their hair short. As a sign of mourning, it
was customary for the men to cut off a lock or two, and
for the women to cut theirs close to the scalp.

They appear to have been phlegmatic to the highest
degree. Catlin relates how a chief, having been embel-
lished and adorned with European clothes, by some
person of distinction, returned to his tribe after a year’s
absence. For fully half an hour he stood before his wife
and children, simply and purely that they might admire
his elegant appearance ; during that time there was no
symptom of recognition, or welcome, or satisfaction on
either side ; but gradually each seemed to unbend, yet
with no expression or emotion, until he at length seated
himself among his wife and family, as though con-
tinuing a conversation of a year ago.

North American Indians

117

Except when boasting of any successful enterprise,
they practised this art of reserve on all occasions, prob-
ably to conceal some weakness ; or, as some writers
assert, to disguise an intense shyness or self-conscious-
ness. This, however, only applied to tribal ethics, and
included neither hunting, scalping, dancing', nor self-
adornment, nor when they were acting in the role of an
arbitrary chief.

The Mandans were a tribe in the Upper Missouri dis-
trict, close to the boundary between America and
Canada. They believed themselves to be the first people
created on earth. Owing to the constant hunting for
their neighbours’ scalps, their numbers had diminished
to a very considerable degree. They lived in lodges,
in other words, in villages ; a number of lodges consti-
tuted a village, which was secured and fortified against
any invasion of enemies. The floor of a lodge was two
or three feet below the level of the ground, the materials
being timber ; the lodge had walls and beams, and the
roof and sides were covered with willow boughs ; the
whole was plastered over with mud and clay. The
slope of the roof was sufficiently flat on the outside,
either to provide a resting place or a ** look out.” The
lodges were made to hold about thirty people ; couches
being arranged round the sides above the floor,
while buffalo skins stretched over four posts formed
the mattress. Along the side of each bed was a
post studded with pegs, where the owner hung all his
precious belongings, and his ** medicine ” when he
was asleep.

In the centre of the village was an open space,
in which all sports and games and other functions
were held ; and facing this space the “ medicine ”
belonging to the tribe was kept in a barrel-shaped
receptacle, Elsewhere, in the village, were long poles

Ii8 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

on which were scalps, with their long clinging hair waving
like so many banners. Just behind the village was the
burial place, called the village of the dead ; here, on a
scaffolding, the bodies were placed, out of reach of
wolves and dogs, and left to decay. The deceased was,
however, prepared for burial, dressed in his best array ;
and placed beside him, painted and oiled, was the dead
man’ pipe and tobacco, his bows and arrows, and a few
days’ provisions. His body was finally wrapped in
fresh buffalo’s hide, and tightly bound from head to foot
until he resembled a mummy ; he was then laid with
his feet towards the East — ^the rising Sun.

For a long time after burial, the near relations of the
departed man sat under this simple scaffolding, perhaps
cutting and mutilating themselves to appease the spirits
of the dead, for any acts of omission committed while
he was on earth. When skeletons had fallen from the
scaffolding, the skulls were preserved, and a ring of these
would be formed in the prairie, with their faces looking
towards the centre. In the middle of this ring was a
small mound with a pole from which “ medicine ”
hung, to protect and guard this sanctuary. Here, per-
haps, long years afterwards, someone would pick up a
piece of a skull, fondle it, and recount memories of a past
when they were together in life. Here a mother would
sit and work for hours, recounting to herself the story of
its birth, the tales of its life, and recalling the anguish of
its death.

Catlin is of the opinion, that this group of people were
the offspring of the aborigines of America, prior to the
arrival of the North American Indians, for it is stated
that there were many whose skins were almost white,
one in ten of both sexes, and of every age, and who, from
their infancy, had light silver grey hair, sometimes in-
deed almost white.

North American Indians ixg

Mixed bathing was not permitted among the Mandans ;
when women and girls bathed, armed sentries were
stationed to protect them from being abducted. After
bathing, they thoroughly anointed themselves with
bears’ grease, massaging it well into their skin. The
Indians felt it a great source of amusement, that
Europeans were so stupid, as not to understand why
they greased their bodies, slept with their feet towards
the fire, or why they walked with their toes turned in.

Among all the Northern Indians, the chief of his tribe
always wore an heraldic head-dress surmounted with
buffalo horns ; not only was it an emblem of rank, but
also of authority, gained either by some deed of daring
influence, or power. These horns were so ingeniously
secured to the headpiece as to give a certain dramatic
effect, and to emphasize any point of oratory expressed
by the additional action of the head. This custom seems
to have originated through imitating the buffalo’s toss of
his head with its powerful horns, and to suggest by his
magnificent strength — the emblem of Force.

Catlin relates that when he had painted the portrait of
a man, he was accused of weakening that person. They
declared that, owing to the extreme likeness, a chief was
alive in two places. This could only be possible if his
existence in both places was halved. But if it was pos-
sible to remove half of a man, then the artist must have
power to remove all he would, even the whole of a man ;
therefore an artist was dangerous ‘‘ medicine.” Later,
however, after a dog had been sacrificed to square the
matter, everyone, especially the women, when dressed in
their best, were anxious to see themselves reproduced
on canvas.

Another universal custom of the North American
Indians was for the host to wait on his guest ; the
visitor’s pipe was filled and lighted for him, and after the

120

Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

first draw, the host took a whiff from the same pipe ;
then, and only then, did conversation commence. A
chief enjoyed a plurality of wives, and on the occasion
of a husband entertaining any company, the women sat
round and looked on.

Polygamy was regarded both as an evidence of, and
as a source of wealth, for it was through the woman’s
labour of preparing skins for sale or barter, that a man
acquired riches. Thus by acquiring wealth he was able
to speculate in wives ; for, owing to the losses incurred in
the sport of scalp hunting, there were nearly three times
as many women as men, consequently, polygamy fitted
very well into the situation. In nearly all cases women
were bought from their fathers, their price being from
one or two horses, a couple of gallons of whisky, several
pounds of beads. The Mandan girls married about the
age of twelve or earlier ; whatever beauty they may have
possessed very quickly vanished, owing to the heavy toil
to which they were subjected ; amongst other duties,
they fetched wood and water, cooked, dressed (chewed)
all manner of skins, prepared meat, and dug the ground
for the growing of com.

The Indians had no stated time for their meals : there
was always a pot stewing, and if any man, woman or
child felt hungry they could help themselves. So long
as this system was reciprocated, and each contributed
to the contents of the pot, all went well ; but there were
confirmed loafers and wasters, who never subscribed
anything, and who helped no one.

These people often ate in a reclining position. Women
sat on their heels ; men sat cross-legged, and helped
themselves first ; the remainder was given to the women,
who consumed far more than the men. All meat was
cut in long slices, and had been cured in the sun ; in this
state it was called pemican.

North American Indians

I2I

The Mandans" dance suggested more a form of posing
than dancing, almost corresponding to our Swedish
drill, accompanied by yells and whoops, which gave it
the aspect of suddenly becoming threatening. No
doubt, at an early epoch, each step or posture suggested
some meaning, probably connected with the chase, or
stealth in head hunting ; but, possibly owing to the con-
stant repetition, it became latterly, to the accompani-
ment of drums and a monotonous chant — ^merely a form
of exercise and a display of agility.

The buffalo dance was a form of ritual to try and
induce the herds of buffaloes to approach nearer, at the
time when that kind of food was scarce. A number of
the tribe, adorned with buffalo-horn headpieces, skipped
up and down and yelled ; others began beating drums ;
as each tired, another took his place, and this calling
upon and soliciting the buffalo, continued until finally
the beasts advanced near enough to be slaughtered.
Since the dance was for the definite purpose of coaxing
the trusting animals it was bound to continue till they
approached ; so it was always a success, although it
might involve several weeks of dancing ; in fact, they
danced for a purpose until they achieved it.

Medicine ” men went through a certain performance
to produce rain. They burnt sweet-smelling herbs, pro-
jected an arrow into the air, or stood on the top of a
wigwam gesticulating for hours ; they eventually suc-
ceeded, because they continued the farce, perhaps for
several days, until it did rain.

Mandans had a great belief in self-sacrifice ; they
would give up their most precious property to hang in
the ** medicine” tent.

Among these people there was an annual orgy of blood
and fearful lacerations which served as a test of endur-
ance among the budding youth ; as a picture of fright-

122

Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

fulness was a test of fortitude at the sight of mangled
men. Young men, emaciated with fasting, w^ere, for the
sake of fanaticism, skewered through the back or on the
chest, and through their other limbs ; they were then
swung round and round, while others added their weight
by clinging to their bodies. Except as a final test of
stoicism, their self-inflicted savagery had no meaning.
This festival took place yearly, and many bore scars
showing that they had gone through the ordeal on
several occasions.

In spite of the severe tortures they bore on these reli-
gious ceremonies, the maimed would offer a sacrifice to
the Great Spirit, with a devout prayer for more fortitude
than they had already shown, for any future occasion of
endurance ; they stoically submitted to the amputation
of the little finger of the left hand ; sometimes they
would also surrender to the Great Spirit the first finger.

Upon every occasion of feasts and festivals, the pipe
was lighted ; before, however, it was smoked, the mouth-
piece was turned upwards towards the Great Spirit, and
was then pointed to the four cardinal points of the com-
pass in succession — North, South, East and West — some-
what resembling the act of making the sign of the cross ;
co-related to this, the number four was regarded as a
mystic number.

It is deeply to be regretted that these interesting
people were, in 1838, decimated by smallpox ; the
handful left, but twenty, deliberately, for the purpose of
suicide, braved thousands of Sioux Indians ; they all
faced certain death, probably in the same stoical manner
as when they tortured their flesh on the occasion of
their annual festival. Thus they became extinct.

The Sioux (pronounced as a French word) were a
numerous, taU, virile, and warlike tribe ; their name for
themselves was Dahkotas, Inhabiting a vast tract of

North American Indians

123

land, they were essentially nomadic, moving their hide-
covered tents ; their migration over vast prairies, fol-
lowed that of the animal and vegetable world. When,
owing to food-shortage, their migrations became urgent,
the old and feeble were left by the way. The able-bodied
went through the ceremony of “ Exposing ” — in other
words, they took a final leave of them. These derelicts
and feeble ones would be placed under the shelter of a
stretched buffalo skin, with a small fire and some fire-
wood. Stoically, an aged man would say, ** I am too
old and too feeble to march ; I am an encumbrance and
burden, and wish to die.” These episodes, common to
all Indian tribes, were what, under similar conditions,
constitutes what would be termed an epic poem among
civilized people : such., for instance, as the act of Captain
Oates, in Captain Scott’s expedition to the South Pole,
where he alluded to him as a gallant gentleman.”

A horse, deer skins, or buffalo robes were the usual
objects of barter ; some ornaments composed of small
bits of coloured shells called Wampum, which were used
for war belts, became not only an article of barter, but
a coinage, measured either in hand breadths, or fathoms
(the length from the tips of the fingers of each hand,
with the arm extended). After an imitation of this
Wampum, made in Europe, was introduced to the
Indians, its circulation as coinage ceased.

The value of a woman, as has been seen, was about two
horses, with perhaps a few extras thrown in ; but after the
death of one, Catlin relates how a father offered him ten
horses for a painted picture of her. The same artist and
author said, that the men could not understand why he
should confer such an honour on a woman as to make a
picture of her, and that under no circumstances should
the portraits of men be exhibited with those of women.
This attitude seems curious, when it may be noted that

124 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

the death-rate among the tribes was very great, while
the birth-rate was diminishing, which depended on the
very existence and numerical strength of the tribe.

The Alguoguins made a distinction between the wife
whom they called “ The entrance of the hut,” and
those whom they termed The middle of the hut ; ”
these last were servants and of inferior rank.

Dogs were the Indians’ best companions ; they
hunted together, they shared the produce of the chase ;
the dog was his watcher and sentinel, and the image of
the dog, as they painted him on their deer-skins and
robes, was the emblem of fidelity. In paying the
highest honour to a visitor, he would sacrifice what he
cherished most ; and the food on this occasion would
be his dog ; in fact, the dog feast would be the scene of
the most solemn ceremony, in sealing a pledge, or in
appeasing evil spirits.

Their smoking mixture was called Knick K'nick.

Orpheus and his lute had passed the fable stage,
among these Indians : they made a flute, much resemb-
ling our tin flute, on which three or four musical notes,
without any particular interval, could be produced.
The instrument was called the Winnebago courting flute ;
a youth sat on a rock or a log, and repeated the order
of certain notes persistently, calling the attention of his
sweetheart to his presence, until it pleased her to come
to him.

Dancing, if that was the name of the form of violent
exercise by which they amused themselves, was fre-
quently enjoyed; the accompaniment was the usual
primitive drum, and voices, for encouragement. The
steps consisted of jumps, as well as contortions of the
body and face, with yelps and screams. These primitive
dances partook of the idea which they desired to repre-
sent, much of the meaning of these caperings being

North American Indians

125

S 5 niibolical. Only men were performers ; women de-
rived the enjoyment of being worked up to an enthu-
siasm for laughter by looking on. There would be a

Bear dance,'"'' in which the spirit of the bears was
appealed to ; also the “ Scalp dance , the name of
which speaks for itself.

The Northern Indians differed in appearance from any
other tribe, having small noses, low foreheads, high
cheek bones, full cheeks, Roman noses, and, usually,
broad chins. The men seldom grew any beard until
they reached middle age ; even then it was of scanty
appearance, but remarkably strong and bristly. As it
was considered unsightly, and not conducive to their
good looks, many pulled it out between the finger and
the blunt edge of a knife.

The Indians in Hudson^ s Bay suffered such acute pangs
of hunger that they were frequently reduced to can-
nibalism. > Mr. Hearne thus describes several of these
unfortunate wretches : ‘‘A smile never graced their
countenances . . . while the eye most expressively
spoke the dictates of the heart, and seemed to say * Why
do you despise me for my misfortunes ? The period is
probably not far distant when you may be driven to the
like necessity.’ ”

The Copper Indians were evidently in complete ignor-
ance as to the appearance of an Englishman until they
beheld Mr. Hearne. On the whole they agreed that
he was a perfect human being, with the exception of
his hair and eyes ; the former, they said, reminded them
of the stained hair of a buffalo’s tail ; the latter being
light resembled those of a gull. They also spoke slight-
ingly of the colour of his skin, declaring that it was like
meat which had been rendered sodden by being put into
water, until all the blood had been extracted. Taking
him ^1 round, he was regarded as such a curiosity, that

126 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

whenever he combed his hair he was begged for the
combings, which were carefully wrapped up, at the same
time saying, " When I see you again, you shall again see
your hair.”

The morals of the North Americans were somewhat
shady : it was quite an ordinary occurrence for the men
to exchange a night’s lodging with one of their friend’s
wives. And, far from it being regarded as an insult, it
cemented friendships between families ; and if one man
died, the other was most scrupulous in looking after the
children of the deceased.

A strong antipathy existed from all time between the
Copper Indians and the Esquimaux. We read of how,
on one occasion, the Esquimaux were brutally massacred
by the Indians, when peacefully sleeping, who, before
they committed this cowardly onslaught painted their
shields or targets to the very edge, with different images ;
the sun, moon, birds and beasts of prey ; hieroglyphics
and imaginary figures, believed to be the inhabitants of
the earth, sea, air, etc. Each one painted what he con-
sidered would be most likely to secure him success in his
undertaking.

After the murder of the Esquimaux, the Indians who
had touched the slain, went through a strange method
of purification : they were forbidden from cooking any
food either for themselves or others. Those who were
under the ban when food had been prepared, painted
their faces between the nose and chin, and most of their
cheeks with a sort of red earth, before they would taste
a morsel ; they also refused to eat of any dish but their
own, or smoke out of anyone else’s pipe.

Mr. Hearne avows, in spite of having no confirmation,
that on still nights he actually heard the Northern
Lights make a rustling and crackling noise, like a large
flag flapping in the wind. The Northern Indians never

North American Indians

127

buried their dead, so by many it was believed that they
fell a prey to birds or animals ; for this reason they
never ate foxes, ravens, etc., unless from necessity.
After the death of a near relative, they wept repeatedly
for a year, the time being measured by moons and
seasons ; even during eating and conversation they
made a sort of howling noise ; they also cut their hair
and rent their clothing. Of religion, they had practi-
cally none, nor any idea of a future existence ; they had
their superstitions and their diviners ; probably, also,
their totem animals, for they would sometimes upraid
their children for speaking disrespectfully of some beast
or bird.

In the late autumn men usually painted the mouth
and part of the cheek before each meal ; during this
time they must never embrace their wives or children,
nor eat certain parts of the deer. But when winter set
in, a man unseen by any woman, lit a fire some way
from the tents, into which were thrown all their orna-
ments, pipe-stems and dishes. After which a grand
banquet was prepared, at which they ate all that had
previously been forbidden. They might also embrace
their wives and children ‘‘ at discretion,” which limita-
tion had, from what we understand, a wide margin.

Among these Northern Indians, as well as the Copper
and Dog-ribbed Indians, they had three or four parallel
black strokes on each cheek, made by running a needle
or awl under the skin, and upon drawing it out imme-
diately rubbing in powdered charcoal. Their dispositions
were far from attractive, for they were morose, covetous,
and hypocritical, yet the mildest tribe of Indians.

As a rule, the men were extremely jealous of their
wives, who were usually mere children ; these unfor-
tunate children, from the age of eight or nine, were for-
bidden the most harmless amusements with the opposite

128 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

sex ; instead of which custom dictated that they should
be watched and guarded, cooped up with old women,
and occupied in scraping skins, mending shoes, and such-
like household duties. Divorces were fairly common ;
the girls had first a good pummelling, then were turned
adrift, and told to rejoin their paramours or relatives
as the case might be. It is as well, perhaps, that these
people, as in Greenland, were not prolific.

No form of cradle was used for infants ; as with the
Southern Indians, a lump of moss was tied between the
legs of their offspring, who were thus carried on their
mothers’ backs, next to their skin. When girls became
of a marriageable age, they wore for some little time a
kind of veil, or curtain made of beads, as a sign of
modesty.

Should two parties of these Indians meet, they came
to a sudden halt about twenty or thirty yards apart,
and either sat or lay down for several minutes. Then an
elderly man, should there be one amongst them, held
forth as to all his misfortunes since last they met ; also
recounting all the deaths and misfortunes of any other
Indians of which he might have heard. Then the most
elderly man on the other side began his tale of woe and
tribulation. If these became too harrowing universal
howls were then commenced, an art in which young
girls were specially expert. After a short time, however,
tobacco was handed round, and conversation drifted on
to good news ; so that in less than half an hour smiles
were on every face, and small gifts frequently exchanged.

The amusements of these people were few ; they had
an out-door game played with short clubs, sharpened at
one end, called holl, which slightly resembles quoits.
Sometimes, at night, they amused themselves with
dancing, although they had no dances or songs of their
own ; but they tried to imitate the Dog-rihhed dances ;

North American Indians

129

these were easy to learn, as they consisted only of lifting
the feet from the ground as quickly, and as high as pos-
sible, without moving the body ; the hands kept closed,
and close to the breast, the head inclining forward.
This dance was always performed in a state of nudity
except for the breech-cloth,” which was also some-
times flung off.

The vocal music accompaniment consisted only of a
repetition, such as hee hee, ho ho,” etc., which by
raising and lowering the voice, and dwelling sometimes
longer, sometimes shorter, on a word, produced the
resemblance of a tune. The dancing was accompanied
by a drum or tabor ; or sometimes by a rattle, made
from dried buffalo skin, into which shot or pebbles had
been placed and shaken about. The dancing of the
women was still more monotonous, for they crowded
outside the tent in a straight line, and shuffled from
right to left, and back in the same line. When the
music stopped, they bent slightly as though making an
awkward sort of curtsey, pronouncing in a shrill voice,
'' hee, hoooe.”

When any of the important Northern Indians died, it
was believed that it was through the evil machinations
of either some of their ovm people, the Southerners, or
particularly the Esquimaux. They did not bury their
dead, which were devoured by the wild beasts and birds.
Should the deceased be a near relation, they rent their
clothing, and mourned for a year.

They held a curious tradition that the first person who
lived on earth was a woman, who in her searches after
berries, which was her only food, met with an animal
resembling a dog, which grew attached to her, and fol-
lowed her to the cave where she lived. This dog pos-
sessed the peculiar faculty of transforming itself into a
handsome young man at night, although always resum-

9

130 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

ing its old shape in the daytime ; so the woman looked
upon the strange happenings as so many dreams and
delusions. But matters arrived at a point which could
not be ignored, as the mother of the world advanced
in her condition of productiveness.

Not long after this, a man appeared, of such surprising
height that his head touched the clouds, for the purpose
of levelling the land, which he did by the help of his
walking-stick. He marked out the rivers, lakes, and
ponds, and caused them to be filled up with water.
Next, he took the dog and tore it in pieces ; its entrails
he threw into the lakes and rivers, commanding them
to become fish. The flesh he threw over the land,
ordering it to become various kinds of beasts ; while
the skin he tore into small pieces, throwing them into
the air, and decreed that they might become all manner
of birds. He finally gave the woman and her offspring
power to kill, eat, and never spare, for he had com-
manded that she should be supplied abundantly
with all she desired. After this, he returned to the
place from whence he came, and has never been heard
of since.

Old age was the greatest catastrophe which could
befall the Northern Indians, for even by their own
children they were treated with disrespect, served last
at meals, given the worst and poorest of the food ;
while the coarsest of their skins served for their old
parents ; they might even die of starvation and neglect.
These people believed in different kinds of fairies called
Nant-e-na, who they imagined inhabited the various
elements of earth, sea, and air, and whom they frequently
declared they saw.

The Aurora Borealis they called Ed-thin, that is Deer.
For experience had shown them that when a hairy deer-
skin was briskly stroked with the hand on a dark night,

North American Indians 131

it gave out sparks of electrical fire. And when the
meteor was very bright in the planet, they said there
were many deer in that part of the atmosphere, although,
as Hearne shrewdly observes — they had not yet extended
their beliefs to such a point as to indulge in any hopes of
tasting this celestial animal.

THE NORTHERN REGIONS AND
GREENLAND

The famous explorer. Captain Ross, in his expedition of
discovering a North West passage into the Pacific Ocean
in i8i8, came across a few native Esquimaux ; and
through the aid of a Greenlander on board, was able to
converse with them, and learn something of their beliefs
and customs. They are described as being of a dirty
copper colour, about five feet in height, fat, and squarely
built ; their dress consisted of seal, deer, and bear skins.
Although only eighteen of these people were seen, they
pointed to the north, and said there were “ plenty of
people ” there. The amazement of these Esquimaux,
when they first beheld Europeans and a ship, can well
be imagined, for they had always believed that they
were the only human beings in the world, the rest being
ice. It was also a matter of astonishment to them, that
there were no women on board the ships of Captain Ross.
There was much for them yet to learn, even their power
of counting did not extend beyond ten.

In their primitive state, we hear dark stories of canni-
balism, infanticide, and other crimes ; it was unsafe for
ships to land on their shores. Cranty tells us that in
1740 a Dutch brig was captured, and the whole crew
massacred. These people seem to have had an inner
conception of a Supreme Being, but it was vague and
undefinable.

Their houses were six feet in height, built half under-
ground of stone, and ‘ ‘ mudded ” to prevent the damp from
getting in ; on the floor, skins were thrown. Several

Northern Regions and Greenland 133

families lived in one house, each keeping a lamp
burning, never allowed to go out, and which served for
purposes of cooking as well as for heating. Their staple
food was the liver and blubber of the walrus and seal ;
but as winter darkness approached, and the ice froze,
as a last resource to prevent starvation, they ate their
daily companions, their dogs ; surely not a very remote
step from their uncles and aunts, and even nearer
relatives.

The regulated ceremonies of mourning for the dead,
was a curious one ; to use Dr. Kane’s words : '' they weep
according to system ” ; one person commenced and all
were expected to join. It was the official right of the
most distinguished among the company, to wipe the
eyes of the chief mourner. There were frequent weeping
gatherings ; at other times, someone would be suddenly
convulsed by sobs, the others following politely,
although perhaps quite ignorant of the particular source
of grief.

It was not indeed necessary that death only should
produce such abandonment of sorrow ; the failure of a
hunt, the snapping of a walrus-line, etc., would have the
same result. But occasionally there entered a totally
different reason for mourning : for the ancient Esqui-
maux believed that death was sometimes caused by
supernatural agencies, and that some form of concilia-
tion was necessary to pacify these offended powers.
The Angekok, or medicine man who claimed super-
natural attributes, regulated the period and penances of
grief : the stricken husband might be forbidden to take
part in the walrus hunt for a whole year, or to abstain
from one of their meagre luxuries.

Among their many avocations, the Angekok professed
to communicate with spirits. It was they, who, after
protracted fasts and meditations, became the medium of

134

Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

communication with the spirits. By working themselves
into an hysterically inspired condition, they claimed to
hold communion with those not of this earth ; to pro-
phesy according to their visions.

As well as the Angekok, there were the Issiutoks, but
these worked evil spells and incantations ; they were
treated in the same brutal manner as the witches of old.
Having been harpooned and mutilated, small portions
of their heart were eaten, to make sure that this man of
the “ evil eye ” could not return to earth unrecognized.

One of the curious customs of the Esquimaux who
lived in Hudson’s Bay, was that the men had all the
hair of their dead plucked out by the roots, to distinguish
them from every other tribe.

Their native dance consisted more in motions of the
hands than of the feet ; the latter were kept close to-
gether, occasional jumps being given, while with the
arms, a continual swinging motion was maintained.
Their small eyes being usually closed during the dance
gave them a most sheepish look.

Their teeth were very bad and worn down to the
gums, especially in the women ; this was due to their
chewing the skins, which constituted their dresses, and
to make them pliable for wear.

At Peteravik the dead were sewn up in skins with
their limbs outstretched. Should the deceased be a
woman, her husband carried her, unattended, to her
last resting-place, where he piled up stones over her
one by one, to form a cairn. In the meantime the
blubber lamp was kept burning ; then the mourners
assembled beside the cairn to lament and howl, while
the widower recounted the virtues of his wife, and his
own devastating sorrow.

Esquimaux were usually buried with their knees
drawn close to their body ; desolation is the word

Northern Regions and Greenland 135

which best describes that last scene. As Dr. Kane
observes — there was no Mother Earth to receive the
dead ; so their companions encased their bodies in
sacks of skins, grouped their implements around them ;
over all were placed a pile of stones and a cairn. We
are told that the Esquimaux never disturbed a grave.

Greenland was discovered by a Norwegian called
Torwald in 982, when driven out of Iceland. The sight
of the green vegetation, during the season of spring
appearing along the coast, suggested to the discoverer
the name of Green land. It was revisited about seven
or eight centuries ago. Some authorities suggest that
these people originated from Tartary. In 1742, a
trading station was established by the Danes in Frederic
Shaab. The first known community of these natives
assembled at a place called God’s Shaab in 1721. In
1730, the native population was estimated to be about
30,000, divided into a dozen communities.

There is an eight months’ winter in that land, the
autumn winds being so violent that houses are blown
down, while tents, and even small boats are lifted up
and carried a long distance. Indeed, Greenlanders
assert that these cyclones have raised stones of 2 lbs.
weight from the ground, and when it was necessary for
a man to go out, he was obliged to crawl on his hands
and knees.

Similar cyclones occur in summer, the season of no
night. At this period of the year the natives hunt and
fish throughout the hours which we call night. On the
other hand, from a certain latitude towards the north,
there is for months no daylight visible ; but the light of
both the moon and stars is much more brilliant than in
more temperate zones, where the atmosphere is less
rarefied.

In these ice-covered lands, the Aurora Borealis,

136 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

wondrous mirages, and subjects of dreamland are all
represented upside down.

Asbestos is found in this country ; the natives use
this mineral for lamp-wicks ; also as a funeral envelope,
within which they bury their dead. A particular kind
of moss grows which the people use hu* a bread. Accord-
ing to Cranty it is anything but palatable, but leaves a
pleasant flavour in the mouth. As Nature had provided
the Greenlanders with no other means of subsistence,
they were forced to be both hunters and fishermen ;
and for mutual aid, in both, as well as for protection
against wild beasts, more especially the Polar bear, they
live in communities.

This land of storms and electric pictures could not
fail in having diviners, ranging from medicine men to
soothsayers ; these sorcerers impressed on the fishermen
that to successfully combat a whale, it was necessary
to wear their best and cleanest apparel ; for, said they,
if anyone wore soiled clothing, or had touched any dead
object, the whale would most assuredly escape or,
when wounded, sink to the bottom of the sea. Thus,
from canoes, men and women attacked the whale with
harpoons, to which were attached inflated seal-skins,
used as buoys, in such a manner as to prevent the whale
from diving.

In appearance, Greenlanders much resemble the
Esquimaux ; in addition we are told their faces are
round and flat, with high cheek bones and very beady
eyes ; their mouths are small, with a large under lip.

They are, moreover, copper coloured, with a rich
coating of dirt, mixed with oil and fat. What else could
be expected, considering they lived in a chronic atmo-
sphere of grease and oil, and seldom or never washed ;
although we hear that after a long fishing expedition
the men dipped their fingers in fresh water, and wiped

Northern Regions and Greenland 137

the salt out of their eyes. Their eating habits, too, were
excessively dirty ; their cooking utensils were licked
clean by the dogs, while their knives scraped off rem-
nants of food from their mouths, teeth, and fingers.

Unlike most hunters, who then and there devoured
the beast they had slain, these people merely drank some
of the warm blood, and ate only a small piece of the
flesh. After the day’s toil was ended, the unsuccessful
hunters or fishermen partook equally with the more
fortunate. All food was consumed that same day, no
allowance being made for a possible disastrous to-
morrow, nor for bad seasons. Under such a happy-go-
lucky existence, it was not surprising that, sometimes,
for days at a time, they were entirely without food.
The climax was reached when they subsisted only on
the soles of their boots, or even on their tent skins,
boiled in the oil which was usually burnt in their lamps.

The women were specially sturdy ; this enabled them
to carry the weighty burdens, so essential to the existence
of the tribe.

In regard to the dress of these people, when outside
their tent, the neck and throat were left exposed to the
weather ; but inside they stripped to the waist ; yet,
whether clothed or semi-nude, the Danish missionaries
had to make the most superhuman efforts to submit
to the stench of a congregation of Greenlander humanity.

There seems to have been an absence of all individu-
ality among these people ; all were phlegmatic and
tranquil, almost to the stage of melancholy or stupidity.
Life was sufficient unto the day, yesterday was already
forgotten, to-morrow had not yet arrived. In this state
of self-complacency, they had a certain contempt for
Europeans ; although they admitted that they were
more industrious, intelligent, possessed a greater variety
of property than themselves. Yet, they failed in seeing

138 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

wherein lay the pleasure of any of these things. In our
times a similar comparison could be made between the
life of a gipsy with that of a stock-broker with a fine
mansion in a fashionable neighbourhood. The Green-
landers’ occupation was whaling, seal fishing, or bear
and deer hunting, etc. ; and, given a sufficiency of this
for their subsistence, of what use was anything more ?
Why the loss of temper and uncalled for energy they
observed among their visitors ?

Excessive patience was a necessity to their success in
hunting, and immobility of body in one particular
position was the only camouflage possible in approach-
ing their prey. On account of the rigour of the climate,
and the sterility of the soil, they could never remain
long idle ; during the protracted days they only hunted
five or six hours ; in the never-ending nights for an hour
at the utmost. But whether they worked or watched
during the night, they slept most of the day.

These people lived in tents during the summer, but in
houses of stone plastered with earth in winter ; these
were not built below groimd, but, for choice, on the
summit of a hillock, or on a single rock, in order not to
be entirely snowed up. So long as the temperature was
below freezing, these houses were adequate enough, but
summer rains occasionally washed away the cementing
material, in which case they had to be rebuilt before
the following autumn.

These houses were so devised, that the inmates had
to enter them on their hands and knees ; the walls were
lined with hides, which had been previously used for
canoes or tents. Each of these buildings held from
three to six families, who slept in a sitting position,
leaning against a bench on which cooking utensils were
placed ; the men with their feet resting on the floor, the
women sitting cross-legged. Windows made from the

Northern Regions and Greenland 139

intestines of fish, were let into the walls, which were
sufficiently transparent to let in a moderate amount of
light, A lamp fed with whale oil, served the same
purposes as for the Esquimaux.

It is said that, what with oil lamps, fish and meat
stewing, combined with other insanitary arrangements,
these houses would certainly have overpowered a
European ; yet here, a community of natives lived not
only in good health, but in absolute self-satisfied con-
tentment.

Nature was more generous to these people in their
covering than in their food : for vests they used either
deer skins, or the skins of water birds (penguins), the
down being worn inside ; stockings were manufactured
from the skins of unborn seals. Over all, was a garment
in the shape of a sailor’s jumper, usually low-necked
with long sleeves and a hood, reaching to the knees.
Fishermen’s clothing was made in one piece, and so
water-tight that de la Harpe tells us it acted as a life-
buoy, in case their canoe should be swamped.

Owing, no doubt, to the coldness of the climate, the
relation between the sexes was apathetic rather than
ardent. Conversation flagged between them — ^in reality
there was little to say. Their laws of etiquette were
somewhat rigid ; were a young man to offer a
maiden a pinch of tobacco, it would be regarded as a
great insult. Youths seldom married before they were
about twenty, and girls were about the same age. The
marriage rites of the Greenlanders was the ancient one
of marriage by capture. Consent having been obtained
from the parents, the bride was fetched from her home
by several women, under pretence of force. On arriving
at her husband’s house, she betook herself into a comer,
and with dishevelled hair, she covered her face with
well studied abasement. In course of time, however,

140 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

she became less unapproachable, and the marriage was
concluded.

There was no dot to be settled in these nuptials ;
indeed, the bridegroom’s only possessions were his skins,
his knife, and his lamp. His qualifications were his skill
as a good hunter or fisherman ; the bride on her part
did the hundred and one things expected of a woman in
these parts, except that occasionally she had no progeny ;
in which case the husband was allowed to take another
wife. There was little difficulty in obtaining a divorce ;
the man had merely to give his spouse a peevish look,
pack up her clothes, and return her to her friends,
where she would conduct herself with such exceeding
modesty as would bring her husband into great ill-
repute. Cutting off the hair was a serious barrier to
matrimony, the lack of hair being regarded as a great
disgrace.

Wives seldom bore more than three or four children,
and any symptom of fecundity was regarded with dis-
approval, as showing a certain measure of wantonness.
Names were more or less hereditary, but nicknames were
acquired through any peculiarity. Should a man of a
similar name die, it was customary for a man to assume
another name, in any case until the memory of the
deceased had considerably waned. Parents were never
known to strike a child, and children were stated to be
devoid of any form of viciousness ; moreover, in the
communal manner in which these people lived, lying
to one another would be devoid of any object. Children
were, therefore, both by heredity and by force of circum-
stance, strictly honest and truthful amongst each other.
As soon as a boy was able to handle such things, he used
a bow and arrows, and was never without a toy knife.
When he was about ten years old, he was given a canoe
{Kajak) in which he learnt to fish ; at his first success in

Northern Regions and Greenland 141

seal and walrus fishing he was acclaimed by all the
women, and declared a man.

A man’s part in the affairs of life was doing all the
needful hunting and fishing, but it was beneath his
dignity either to carry or to skin his captures — this was
woman’s work. A great number of things were women’s
work : amongst others making clothes, building huts,
and cooking food. Indeed, from the day she was
married until the day of her death, the life of a woman
was made up of incessant labour — sometimes, indeed, of
days and weeks of starvation and misery. Owing to their
strenuous life of exposure in all weathers, men seldom
lived beyond fifty ; women lived longer, and so, with such
a superfluity of women, polygamy obviously followed.

These people had a definite season for purposes of
barter ; the Southerners had no whales, the Northerners
no wood, and the mart was perhaps 400 miles midway.
When these expeditions were undertaken, each party
made the journey accompanied by their whole family,
taking with them all their worldly possessions. And
here entered a very important factor regarding all
emigrations ; for if, wind and weather-bound, any
group were isolated or marooned, they might amalga-
mate or form another separate tribe in new lands.
Among themselves it was well known, that after or
during these yearly ventures, some might return after
long periods of voyaging, others had gone for ever. It
is curious to hear that the most valued article of barter
between the natives and Europeans was snuff — a man
would sell all the clothing on his back for a small quan-
tity of snuff.

One of their games, the main object being apparently
to enable them to endure pain, was to hammer at one
another, in turns, on the back, with clenched fists. He
who endured this hammering the longest was the con-

142 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

queror ; even then his endurance was put to a further
test with a new competitor — until he succumbed ; thus,
in course of time, each one was knocked out.

In their most stormy quarrels the dispute was settled
by a systematic wrangling debate, each having a number
of supporters listening to, and enjoying the mutual
recriminations, and unconstrained ridicule of satire and
raillery. Yet in spite of this exhibition of mutual dis-
dainful scorn, no violent adjectives were used ; and the
duel of words being ended, all was harmony once more.

The people of the Arctic Regions were obviously Sun
Worshippers, for that orb meant everything to them ;
at the winter solstice they contorted their bodies and
danced frantically, keeping up the revel for several days
until they were completely exhausted.

There were certain laws accepted by all, in connection
with the hunt, fishing, or what was cast up on the shore ;
for example, anyone finding wood of any kind, or parts
of a wreck, was, on bringing it to the land, considered
the legal owner of that prize, and no one would think
of removing the stone he placed on it. In the case of
fishing, so long as the harpoon with the rope attached
still stuck into the fish, it was the property of the owner
of the harpoon, although the fish may have got away
with the weapon ; but if the rope became detached from
the harpoon, the fish became the property of the one
who caught it, but he returned the harpoon to its owner.
Should a whale be washed up on the shore, it became
common property, one and all slashing pieces out of it.

The communal customs relating to all possible cases
seemed so fair and just, that Mr. Cranty, the Moravian
missionary, in 1733, was reluctant in disturbing these
inoffensive people by the introduction of the orthodox
laws of Christianity which he brought with him from
Europe. They had, he said, learnt too well the most

Northern Regions and Greenland 143

callous acts of Nature ; like the animals none would
assist another, drowning, or starving, or in distress ;
Nature was manifestly unsympathetic, inadequate, often
unnecessarily cruel ; the battle of life always favoured
the strong ; men ruled over women ; women over
children ; children over birds.

The cult of Metamorphosis was a source of great
consolation to these people. If a father chanced to lose
his son, a widow persuaded him that the soul of his
son had passed into one of her children lately born ; in
this case the man adopted both the widow and her
offspring as his own.

A Greenlander’s Paradise was at the bottom of the sea,
where, from the bowels of the earth, it supported all the
water above them. Here was an eternal summer with
perpetual daylight ; the waters were always clean, and
there abounded unlimited game and fish, which, without
the effort of man, fell into his pots always ready filled
with boiling water ; but it was only those who had per-
formed their service in this world, who entered this
Elysium. To reach this Paradise the soul glided for
five days over rugged rocks which were covered in blood ;
it may be that this last function of the soul had been
derived from some idea of a Purgatory, that was grafted
into their minds many centuries before by some European
travellers. In addition to this tenet, they also believed
that the soul itself in its perilous journey through
Purgatory, ran the risk of annihilation ; it was espe-
cially for this reason, that the deceased’s parents
abstained for five days from certain foods, and did not
raise their voices beyond a whisper during their daily
work, so as not to distress nor tire the soul in its journey.

Others located Paradise in the sky above the clouds ;
the soul being able to fly to the stars, its first resting-
place was the Moon, where it mingled with other spirits.

144 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

The wondrous Northern Lights represented to the
Greenlanders the dance of souls. This conception seems
to have been a survival of a very ancient belief, credited
more among the Southerners than the Northerners.

They believed in two Spirit Principles : one good, the
other evil. It was the Good Principle the diviners
consulted in regard to the future. Some believed he
was indefinite, without form ; others, more material-
istic, that he was like a gigantic bear ; or that he
resembled a man but had only one arm, or that he had
more the form of a dove. The Bad Principle was
feminine ; this goddess resided in a submerged palace,
and by her magic enslaved all the fish and dwellers of
the sea. She was guarded by a Cerberus, who never
slept. In the case of shortage of sea food, the diviner
had to propitiate this malevolent goddess.

The female Principle was not favoured by the Green-
landers ; it was a melancholy spirit which attached itself
to man. Apart from these Great Principles were a host
of minor ones, connected with the success or failure of
their undertakings, either encouraging or opposing them.
There were also mountain genii, and fairy dwarfs ; and
a spirit of fresh water streams — the first drink from
such pure rivulets would drive out any evil spirit of
which the drinker might be possessed.

It is a peculiar characteristic, a phase in the evolution
of all mankind, in all parts of the world, to be so credu-
lous as to believe in the power of charms and amulets.
These mascots worn by men, women and children were
believed to possess a kind of guardian spirit which pre-
served the wearer from danger or sickness, and generally
brought about good luck : curious pieces of wood, or
stones ; a bone, a bird’s feather hanging round the neck ;
or bits of hide dangling from the arms, or on the chest,
were some of these mascots.

Northern Regions and Greenland 145

Moreover, the value of the mascot would be enhanced
were it a gift ; if given by a European, whether a small
strip of their clothing, or even a piece of his boot, through
that gift would permeate the spirit of his country. A
nati\'e will often beg a European to breathe over him.
All kinds of charms were hung from their huts and their
canoes, and no fisherman would start out without the
special mascot to bring him good luck, and to save him
from drowning.

At this date (1730) there was no written language,
because the people could not understand ; they were
even friglitcned to carry a written message. Altogether,
on many ]X)ints, the Greenlanders were sorely iiandi-
capped. Since there was no sun visil)lc in winter, there
was no possible means of recording the tinu^ of day ;
but ])y observing the first faint rays of light on the
summit of the inland mountains, tliey liad an ap])roxi-
inate idea of the time of mid-winter; when this was
recorded they held their New Year’s festival. During
the three following moons they prepared to shift out of
their winter quarters ; at their fourth moon some small
bird visitors began to arrive ; when the walrus or sea
horse appeared it was the fifth moon. At this period
they partly lost sight of the moon through the following
twenty-four hours, owing to the Inilliance of the sun.
When the moon was not visible they counted the days
b}' the length of the shadows cast by the rocks ; although
by tlie shortest daily shadow they were only able to tell
when it was midday or the longest day.

The stars, they said, were the spirits of deceased
Greenlanders ; shooting stars wxre souls on their way
to visit hell, to discover what was t'aking place there.
Their knowledge of astronomy was used partly as a
guide to the seasons, embellished with fable and poetry :
for example, the three stars forming what we call Orion’s

10

146 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

Belt, was represented to the Greenlander as three men,
who having lost their way after sea-horse fishing, were
transported into the sky. The Sun and Moon were
represented as brother and sister ; the marks in the
Moon were made by her brother’s soiled and greasy
fingers, and by these smears he would be able to recog-
nize her. Thunder was produced by two women
quarrelling over a seal’s skin ; during the squabble the
house collapsed, the lamps were broken, and produced
lightning.

The use of snuff alleviated many of the eye troubles so
prevalent in the land. Wlien a man was buried his
canoe, bow and arrows were placed by his side ; when a
woman was buried her needles and knife were placed
near her body ; and on the grave of a child was placed
the head of a dog, for without its assistance the child
would have been incapable of finding its way.

PERSIA

About 1650 Persia extended from the Caspian Sea to
the Indian Ocean, was bordered on the east by the
Mongols of China, and on the west by the Euphrates,
Ispaham being the capital. Tavernier describes the
streets as inconceivably dirty, littered with every form
of garbage, and open sewerage ; beasts weie slaughtered
in the main thoroughfare, others left to die there. Little
wonder was it, therefore, that the better classes always
travelled on horseback.

Cleanliness did not in other respects appeal to the
Persians. Morier tells us of a Persian rej)ast, of which
the company partook seated on their customary mat
or carpet, their feet tucked under them. They placed
their chins close to the dishes, and scooped up the food
with their three fingers and the thumb of the right hand.
On the ground was placed the sofra or the tablecloth,
which had been so long in use that its fragrance was
1 emarkably unsavoury ; the Persians were wholly in-
different to this fact, declaring that changing the sofra
brings ill-luck.”

Among their amusements they played a game with
eggs ; this consisted in butting the ends against each
other ; strong eggs were, therefore, a valuable asset ;
marionette shows were also very popular. Their dances,
writes Edward Stoll Waring, were crudely indecent and
disgusting, but their songs were beautiful and pathetic,
the usual theme being praise of wine and beauty, and
the cruelty of their mistresses. Many of the nobler
orders engaged Georgian boys to sing, and play on
different instruments.

148 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

The Persian considered it part of his religion to be
vigilant in guarding both his faith and his wives. It
was criminal even to look at the habitations of neigh-
bour’s wives ; their jealousy reached such a point that
they built a hut over the graves of their women, so that
no man might even catch a glimpse of the lifeless
remains. They also instilled into the minds of their
wives, that not only should they shun the society of the
other sex, but that they should avoid even looking at
them. They believed that when the faithful are in
Paradise, they will have eyes in the crown of their head,
to prevent their seeing the Jionris, or celestial women
who belong to others.

Neither were married women, unless of a very low
class, allowed to see their nephews or their husband’s
brothers ; indeed brothers were frequently forbidden
to see their sisters. Wlien the women paid visits, a
troupe of horsemen rode before them crying Knruck !
Kurtick I in order that no man might be in the path ;
otherwise he would be beaten with the staves of these
out-runners. Should a man be found in the path of
the King’s harem, he would immediately be put to death.
Upon the route of these ladies becoming known, all the
men near the path taken by the harem were obliged to
leave their houses.

Espoused wives were called Nekaa, four being allowed
by the Mahometan law ; but owing to the expense, men
seldom have had more than one. If they cannot
content themselves,” sa3^s Chardin, with one woman,
which is a misfortune that never fails to befall ’em, they
make use of their slaves. By that means the Peace of
the Family is never disquieted : for the marry ’d wife . . .
whether contented or no, her Relations never take any
notice.”

If, by chance, a person of quality fell in love with a

Persia

140

woman unfitted to be his wife from a social point of
view, he hired her for ninety-nine years, so that he made
sure of her during his life. Persians were usually married
through a half-opened door which separated the bride
from her bridegroom ; a priest, or someone possessing
the necessary authority, stretched out his hand to the
bride elect, saying, “ I, authorized })roxy for you, marry
you to him. You shall be his peipctual wife with such
dowry according as you ha^ c agreed ” ; the same
formula was then quoted from the Imsbaiurs side.

“ About an hour after she has been at her luisl^and’s
house, the matrons carry her into the l)ridal cliamber,
Lincloath her to a little waste-coat, and put her to bed.”
When the bridegroom cnLen d all the lights were extin-
guished : we also hear that “ Coyness frequently happens
among persons of qurdity . . . tliose of the Idood royal,
more particularly, put their husl)ands to tliis trouble,
so that it requires whole months to reclaim ’em.” vSome-
tiines the haggling over the dowry took place up to the
time of the delivery of the maid to the man ; in such
cases, it being a dishonour to return home, the bride’s
parents were obliged to accept a reduction. Chardin
comments : ” We may say in general that the matches
are more happy in a country where the man and woman
never see one another ; then the women, are coveted.”

Persians frequently changed their names, either to
give them greater dignity, or in hopes of better fortune.
In 1667, the first year of the monarch’s rule had so many
misfortunes on account of war and famine, that he was
induced to change his name. The prince was therefore
crowned afresh under the name of Soliman ; and all
the old seals and coins bearing the name of Sefi were
destroyed as though he had died.

Sir John Chardin says : “ The women more frequently
change their names than the men, whether owing to a

150 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

natural inconsistency, or that they do not agree to the
alterations they find in life, being put upon them on
account of their beauty, gaiety, their agility in dancing,
or fine voice . . . they assume other names which better
agree to their changed state.”

Kings never allowed malefactors to look at them ; for
this reason their faces were always covered when in his
majesty’s presence.

I'he Persians had very beautiful horses which were
brought from Armenia ; the crown royal ” was set on
the head of a horse, as victorious (triumphant) chariots
were also crowned.

The Persian ladies, says Olearius, did not wear their
two or three rows of pearls round their necks but on their
heads, beginning at the forehead and going down the
cheeks, and beneath the chin, giving an appearance as
though their faces were set in pearls. From the belief
that married people had a particularly happy life in a
future state, they used often to hire persons to be
espoused to those who had died unwed.

When a man desired to find a wife for his son, he went
to the house of the damsel he had selected ; should her
father have sweetmeats produced, it was taken for a
sign that the overtures had been favourably received.
The usual presents were then offered by the bridegroom,
which, if he was in fairly good circumstances, usually
consisted of two suits of fine clothes, a sum of money
for the benefit of his bride, in case of a divorce, and a
looking-glass ; the contract was afterwards signed by
the Cadi or Magistrate.

On the night of the wedding the bride was attired in
a dress of red silk, or painted muslin ; the bridegroom
then sent for a horse for her to mount ; and one of the
bridesmaids held up a looking-glass in front of her, all
the way to her husband’s house, in order that she might

Persia

151

see herself for the last time as a maid. A large proces-
sion followed, and the marriage festivities lasted eight
or ten days. Chardin (1684) declares that matrimony
in Persia was very expensive, so that Persons of
Estates will not venture upon it.” Mahometans took
their wives after three methods : (i) by purchase ; (2)
by hire ; (3) by marriage ; the children born by any of
these three methods were equally legitimate. If a slave
had a child by her master, she was freed, and the child
was a lawful heir.

Hired wives were called Moutaa ; at Ispahan the best
could be hired for thirty-five pounds a year ; when the
time had expired, it could be renewed at pleasure ; but
before this was done, the woman had to undergo forty
days of purification.

Persian women, as other Easterns, wore necklaces
suspended from the neck to which was fastened a large
box of sweets ; some of these boxes were as large as the
hand ; the common ones were made of gold, the others
were covered with jewels. All were bored through and
filled with black paste, composed of musk and amber,

but of a very strong smell.”

It was common belief in this country that the English
people lived in ships on the water, and had no posses-
sions of land except in those of other countries. Morier,
about 1890, was of the opinion that Our present
Persian seems still to have retained a lingering im-
pression of this sort.”

Until a man had grown a respectable beard, he was
not considered to be fit to hold any position of trust, so
all young men sighed after one, and greased their chins
to hasten the growth of the hairs. Yet all Persians had
their heads shaved ; and were never seen uncovered
unless by accident.

There was in Persia a religious sect called Games,

152

Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

apparently an offshoot of the Christian religion especially
adapted to the people. The mother of the first Prophet
was called Dogdon, who having a vision that she had
been visited by an Angel, dazzling as the Sun, she ga\^e
birth to the Prophet Ebrahim-zer Ateucht. This
Prophet claimed that he had the power of performing
miracles, and the king had him cast into prison ; but
it came about that his majesty's favourite horse had his
four legs cut off. Upon being consulted in regard to
this tragedy, the Prophet offered up four prayers ; after
each prayer the horse grew a leg, and so was wholly
restored. Only half satisfied, the king tried a further
test ; he made a bath of molten silver, into which the
Prophet was told to bathe. This test was also saTis-
factory, for he came safely through this ordeal ; after
this, he was said to have entered Paradise.

Then was uttered the prophecy that three more
Prophets should be born ; and with the birth of the last,
would come the end of the physical world ; all the
mountains and metals would be precipitated into hell,
fill it up and destroy it. After that all the world would
be happy, each having his own mansion, their sole
delight being to behold and sing praises to God and
Ebrahim. This state of bliss would only, however, lie
the portion of those who were still alive after the
“ Third Coming.'’

There would come a day of resurrection, when the
soul would re-unite with the body and appear together
before the Judge of Judges ; on tlic journey to Paradise
there would be a bridge, narrower than the sharp edge
of a knife, over which all Mussulmen would flit with
the lightness of a bird. But the evil-doers and infidels
would fall beneath this bridge into fiery furnaces, where
thousands of devils armed with pincers eind tridents
would stir them up.

Persia

T53

The keeper at the gate of Paradise let all good Persians
enter. There, sitting in the side of a great fountain, the
Prophet with a long spoon, gave them of the water to
drink ; after which they were presented with delicious
food, and a number of women (honris), created expressly
for this purpose, since no human woman might enter
Paradise.

The Caurcs were allowed five wives, should they be
able to siipport them. If a man luid cause to repudiate
one, a year must elapse before she could be taken back ;
if Tiie woman did not repent, but was willing to acknow-
ledge her misdeed, she was given a further three 3^ears to
reconsider the matter. After whi* h time, should tlie
pair still desire to live together again, they must be
remarried, which consisted of a simple ceremony of
spi iii]<.ling the face of each with water, accompanied by
i\ iCVv' woixh from the priest. AKliough is was lawful for
a man to iinve hvc wives, only one was counted as the
true wife ; she vais compelled to shaie her husband’s
('ouch on T"ri<lays and Saturdays. If after seven years
she produced no children, her husband might repudiate
her. By command of tlie prophet there was, we are
told, one day in the year, in which all the women
assembled to kill frogs ; unfortunately, the reason of
this, and further details, are lacking.

Both men and women Ganres ate pork and drank
wine ; both allowed their hair to grow, which it did to
great length ; nor did they cast aside their nails unless
the necessity arose, when they carried away and buried
the parings.

They loved bulls, cows, and dogs ; the first and last
wei e not allowed to be killed ; but they had the greatest
antipathy to cats, owing, they said, to their resemblance
to the devil. Thus no one kept a cat, indeed they killed
any That they might find ; should anyone have a

154 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

distemper, the source was to be found in cats who,
created by the devil, had brought about the sickness.

These people set their dead up against a walled-in
cemetery, and the flocks and crows gathered round ; if
a crow picked out the right eye of the deceased, it was
a sign of future happiness ; if the left eye, it was a
premonition of evil, and everyone was sorrowful.

On the death of a prince, it was customary to cast out
their physicians and astrologers from court ; firstly
because they had not driven away death, secondly
because they had failed to predict it.

Another very usual custom was that when a man
was on the point of death a little dog was placed on his
chest ; when the man was in extremis they applied the
dog’s muzzle to his mouth to gather his soul into the
dog, who would deliver it into the hands of the Angel
who is the receiver of souls.

In Armenia there is a tradition that Noah planted a
vineyard near Erivan (the capital), about two miles
from the city, and that Erivan was the most ancient
inhabited place in the world. Noah, and his family,
they declared, lived there before and after the Deluge ;
and that here also was the terrestrial paradise. But
Chardin says, all this is a story . . . reported by per-
sons equally ignorant and vain-glorious.”

In the treasury of the famous monastery of the Three
Churches ” there are relics of saints : an arm and thigh
of St. Caiana, an arm of St. Gregory, a rib of St. James,
a finger of St. Peter, and two fingers of St. John the
Baptist.

Some thirty-five miles to the east of Erivan is the
famous mountain in which Noah’s Ark was supposed to
have rested ; the Persians and Armenians called it
Masis or Macis. In the Scriptures the Ark is said to have
rested on the Mountain of Arami, which is in Armenia.

Persia

155

There is a tradition that the Ark is still in the Mountain
of Arcis, but that no one is able to ascend the mountain
to verify this statement. It is also said, that in ancient
days, the pitch with which the Ark was smeared was an
antidote against several distempers.

We hear a quaint account of an Armenian wedding in
1831 ; the priest joined the hands of the bride and
bridegroom together ; the bride was so concealed by
drapery that not so much as the tip of a finger was
visible, a thick white linen veil being thrown over her
head. The only part uncovered was the top of her
head — ^attached to this was a mass of false hair which
frequently rested on a sofa.

At the altar the bridegroom was asked : —

If she is blind, thou acceptest her ?’*

** If she is lame, thou acceptest her ? ”

** If she is hump-backed, thou acceptest her ? ” To all
of which questions the bridegroom replied, *' I accept.**

The bride was then asked : —

" Thou acceptest ? ” and she replied, I accept.’*

After this the bride’s sumptuous clothing was removed,
and her husband, for the first time, beheld his wife. For
twelve months after her wedding she was not allowed to
open her lips in the presence of her mother-in-law, or
her married sister-in-law.

Mothers in Armenia arranged marriages without even
consulting the fathers or brothers. The ceremony of
afiiancing was performed by a priest ; children might
be betrothed at the early age of two or three ; even
before birth arrangements were sometimes made, subject
to the arrival of the right sex. The youth was supposed
to send his betrothed, every Easter, a dress ; three days
before the marriage was celebrated, the young man’s
father and mother carried to the maid’s parents all the

136 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

necessaries of a feast. Men and women never ate to-
gether at a public gathering ; on this occasion also they
ate at separate tables.

On the eve of the wedding, the bridegroom elect sent
a suitably valuable dress to his betrothed, while her
mother sent him a costume in return. Then each, on a
separate horse, was escorted by a number of young
men to the church w^heie the ceremony was performed.
When night had closed in, the husband was the first to
retire ; his bride took off his stocking ; only after
the light had been extinguished, did she remove her
veil. Before daybreak she arose and covered herself
once again with her veil ; thus, owing to* this custom,
there were men, who though married for ten years, had
never seen the face of their wife.

We are given details, by Lady Augusta Hamilton, of
another wedding. The procession was started by flute
players and dancers, follow^ed by a group of relations ” ;
next in the procession was a party of men holding torches
of yellow wax. Finally the bride appeared, supported
by two of her nearest relatives ; a sack was drawn over
her head down to her feet ; a wooden “ tea-board ” was
on her head keeping the sack from her mouth and
nostrils ; she was separated from her bridegroom by a
party of guests. The bridegroom was a miserable
looking object, enveloped in napkins ; his head, which
was leaning slightly over his left shoulder, was covered
with a silk shawl. The banquet which followed this
lugubrious wedding degenerated into an orgy, which
lasted for three days and nights.

In Upper Armenia was the famous Temple of Fire
called Azev-heyan, where was kept this Fire which Fire-
worshippers held to be a god. The Gtiebres, the last
that were left of these people, say that the Sacred Fire is
still there and can be seen there in the shape of a flame,

Persia

157

which, they add, according to Chardin, is a sort of
pleasant story, that if you make a hole in the ground,
and set a pot over it, that same fire will cause it to seethe
and boyle all that is in the pot.”

On the death of a slave, before his master had liberated
him, the hand of the deceased clasped a notice that he
was honest, and his liberty was thereby granted ; this
was to clear him of the reproach, in the next world, of
being a slave. Suicides w^ere not carried out through
the door, but through a hole in the wall.

When a high dignitary of the Church died, he was,
like an ordinary mortal, enclosed in a sack ; but, in
addition, a note was placed in his hand, on which, quoting
Tavernier, was written : ‘‘ Souvien toy que tu es venu
de terre, et que tu retouincras en terre.”

PERU {Ancient Incas)

It is exceedingly difficult to trace the earliest history of
Peru, mixed up as it has been with contradictory
accounts and untrustworthy exaggerations. Garcilasso
de la Vega, the eminent Inca scholar, considers the
following tradition most worthy of belief. Peru was
inhabited by peoples divided up into several wild
straggling tribes, continuously at war with one another,
brutalized by excessive cannibalism, without law, order,
or any form of morality.

It is related that an offshoot of the ancient tribe of
Cocomas had a custom of eating their deceased relatives,
finally grinding the bones to mix with a drink of
fermented liquid — for said they, ** Is it not better to be
inside a friend than be swallowed up by the black
earth ? ”

According to Inca Garcilasso, the people of Amtis
likewise ate human flesh ; they regarded it as sacred
food ; and especially relished the flesh of the sacrificed
man who had died bravely and without fear, for it
endowed the consumer with these desirable qualities.

Suddenly, in about the 12th Century a.d., out of this
chaos there arose two individuals, a man and a woman,
who, under the legendary names of Manco-Capac and
Mama-Oello Huaco, asserted that they were the mystical
children of the Sim, destined by this heavenly father to
reform and gather mankind under one Empire, and to
become its rulers.

They also declared they were invested with a gold
wedge, with directions that they were to journey until
a spot was found where the wedge could be easily

Peru {Ancient Incas)

159

pushed into the ground. Magnetized by their splendid
appearance and ancestry, and unconsciously influenced
by a superior personality, the wandering tribes united
and followed this remarkable pair in their mission to
the valley of Cuzco. Nearby, on the ridge of Huana-
cauti, the wedge sank into the earth at the first blow,
and was never again seen.

Here, in the valley of Cuzco, were laid the foundations
of the capital with its stone buildings. Under the
influence of the divine wisdom of their new leaders, the
tribes submitted to law and order ; the spirit of these
brutalized savages became changed, their vigour and
energy was guided into new channels. Manco-Capac
introduced agriculture and various industries ; while
Mama-0 ello not only taught the women weaving, dyeing,
spinning, etc., but presented to their minds such virtues
as they had never before heard.

They were also gradually persuaded, or forced, into
the belief of a Supreme Being, whom they named
Pachacamac, and who they credited as instilling life
into the Universe. His symbol was a large oval flat
plate of fine gold. All sacrifices were made with animals
and birds.

Each province, town, tribe, and family retained their
separate gods or totems. Every living creature was
venerated for its particular physical virtue — tigers and
bears for strength ; monkeys for agility ; dogs for
fidelity ; condors and eagles for their dignity. Precious
stones were worshipped for their crystalline transparency
and beauty of colour, the emerald being the most adored.

To those who lived by the products of the land.
Earth was Mother ; those living by the Sea claimed the
Sea as their Mother.

There is every reason to believe that all their laws
were based on a rigorous social system ; there was no

l6o Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

currency ; everyone, being provided with land and
animals, had sufficient means to feed and clothe himself.
From the earliest times their first consideration was to
work the land assigned to the Sun, the product of this
being stored for national purposes. Their next con-
sideration was for the land assigned to widows, orphans,
the sick or aged ; following this, the land belonging to
absent soldiers was tilled during their absence ; last of
all was brought under cultivation the land belonging to
the Incas. There were very stringent laws pertaining
to extravagance.

Thus ends the mixture of fact and fable, covering
many earlier centuries of progress and culture ; and
in this state they were discovered in 1516.

Thence, also, originated the powerful monarchy of
the Incas, or children of the Sun. At the Assemblies of
these earthly divinities, the higher orders arrived with
a ** light bundle,” a symbol of authority, while the
populace, before entering the street where the royal
palace was built, w^re compelled to uncover their heads
and remove their shoes.

According to Rivero and Tschudi, the youthful
nobility, at the age of sixteen, began making prepara-
tions for a ceremony which has been compared to the
order of knighthood in the Middle Ages. A grim ordeal
it must have been, one at which the reigning Inca
presided. Not only had the competitors to be well
skilled in wrestling, and other war-like exercises, but
mock tournaments were fought in which, although the
weapons were without edge, the combatants were
always more or less injured, and sometimes killed.
Every kind of privation had also to be endured, with
the dual object of rendering them fit for battle, yet
making them merciful and gentle towards those who
were poor and helpless. The successful competitors

Peru {Anctenl Incas) i6i

were then introduced to the reigning Inca, who pierced
their ears with pins of gold, preparatory to the enor-
mously heavy pendants they might afterwards be
honoured with, on account of their services to the Inca.
The size of the lobe of their ear was, in fact, the symbol
of their status.

Some of the laws of the Peruvians were humane in the
extreme : all invalids were supported at the expense of
the nation. They had also special inns, the “ guest
houses ” of those days, called Corpahuasis, for the
assistance of strangers, which were also supported at the
public expense. Another of their laws was for the
purpose of instilling economy and simplicity, both in
regard to food and dress. The Incas, who were also the
High Priests, closely cropped their hair, obsidian knives
being used for the purpose. When the Spaniards intro-
duced scissors, razors, combs, and looking-glasses, one
of the Incas is said to have remarked that the intro-
duction of these precious articles was sufficient to give
the Spaniards a claim to their country. Only the Incas
wore turbans of many colours ; those of the people were
of black ; to distinguish one tribe from another, the
head covering was also of different shapes ; each tribe
had, as well, its hair trimmed in a particular manner
for the sake of distinction. There were also special
rules laid down for their ear ornaments, each tribe
having a decoration of its own.

The Incas always consulted the Sun and gave him as the
authority, before issuing any edict, or creating a new law.

At the deathbed of the Inca, Manco-Capac, he desired,
that all the people he had governed should be known
as Incas, and their wives and daughters called Pallas.

Their punishments were particularly drastic ; those
who cheated were flogged, and occassionally put to
death ; severe sentences were also meted out to those

II

t62 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

who removed landmarks and benefited generally by
deeds of wilful damage to their neighbour’s property.
But the most brutal of all their punishments was inflicted
upon those who seduced the women of the Incas ; such
were burnt or buried alive, with their sons, ancestors,
servants, neighbours, and cattle.

As in Greece and elsewhere, the Peruvians paid deep
respect to their dead. In October, after the feast to their
memory, they acted tragedies or dramas, in which were
commemorated the patriotic virtues of their deceased
ancestors. During the months when their War exercises
were celebrated, they usually acted comedies, in which
the warrior-like deeds of their ancestors were recorded.

We learn from Lady Augusta Hamilton and others
that there were convents of young girls, chosen before
the age of eight, who were dedicated to perpetual
virginity as wives for the Sun. The most celebrated
was at Cusco ; here only the daughters of the Incas
of the blood royal were admitted. They were under
the charge of an elderly dame and led a very secluded
life, not being even permitted to see their parents. Nor
might the King visit their retreat — only the Queen and
her daughters.

Other convents were so many seraglios, containing
young girls of all classes famous for their beauty ; from
these were selected the Inca’s concubines. Those who
were thus favoured could not afterwards return to their
convent, but became ladies in attendance on the Queen
at the Palace. When, however, they reached mature
age, they were permitted to return to their home and
country, and in consequence of having met with such
an honour from an Inca, were much prized as wives for
the Inca’s favourites, or as a reward for men of distinc-
tion ; they were treated with the highest respect and
lived in the greatest comfort.

Peru [Ancient Incas) 163

An Inca might have as many concubines as he chose,
the daughters of whom were highly honourable brides
for courtiers and nobles, but only one wife, called Coya,
who was his sister or half-sister : if she brought him no
children, he married all his sisters in turn. Should he
have no sisters, he espoused his next of kin : one Inca
had three hundred direct descendants. This custom of
consanguinity among the monarchs was also common
in Egypt and other oriental countries, one convenient
theory for it being that it would be degrading to one
who was considered superhuman to mate with mere
mortals ; it also assured the ruling kingdom to the one
House.

Should the Inca’s wife prove unfaithful, but swore
that the Sun was the real father of her child about to
be bom, she might live until she was delivered, after
which she was buried alive ; and according to its sex,
the child of this Deity was either destined for the
priesthood, or brought up as one of the sacred virgins.

Every year or two all the single girl connections of
the Incas, between 18 and 20, were collected with single
youths of the same status of 24 — ^boys not being allowed
to be married before this age — the Inca then taking
the hand of each, made them repeat a vow, after
which they were considered married. The young couple
spent the honeymoon at the home of the bridegroom’s
father, and became a charge on certain districts, who
were obliged to provide for them. The following day an
official would carry out the same function with the
boys and girls of commoners, each being of similar rank
and of the same parish.

Their nearest relations in each town and district were
compelled to supply them with suitable lodging, furni-
ture, and means of existence.

Ordinary gentlemen might have several concubines

164 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

but only one wife ; if he was unfaithful no punishment
would be inflicted were the lady chosen a spinster ; but
should she be married he forfeited his life. When women
lost their husbands, they had the choice between
unsupported widowhood or being buried alive.

The people had a habit of washing their heads in
mud, the object being to make their hair soft and
black.

The Peruvians believed strongly in witchcraft and
considered that their downfall would arise from these
demoniacal practices ; therefore was it commanded,
that all who practised it should be burnt, with any
objects they might have used for these unholy rites.
They moreover declared that these wizards had the
power of driving some of the highest in the land mad,
by means of certain herbs, and by forcing them to eat
small stones, who in consequence fell desperately in
love with the lower orders.

They believed, too, that the wizards had idols of
different coloured stones which they consulted ; some
of the smaller ones were in the shape of two people
embracing. When the wizards were seeking these
stones, it was declared that lightning and a thunderbolt
indicated where they would be found. These idols
were called heracanqui, and sold at a high price among
women, who believed they would bring them love and
happiness. The idol was placed in a small new basket,
with a number of blue and green feathers from special
kinds of birds ; amulets were also placed in the basket,
as well as maize flour, some fragrant scented herbs, and
cocao leaves. It was kept among the clean clothes,
the maize flour being renewed every month.

Other objects of witchcraft were also used with the
same purpose, such as hairs, saliva, anything emanating
from the person of the enquirer ; these were mixed with

Peru {Ancient Incas) 165

some object appertaining to the person beloved. With
the purpose of keeping themselves awake, wizards
frequently used, after midnight, a large quantity of
cocao, green tobacco, and cinnamon. They also
employed large and hairy spiders as a means of fore-
telling the future, seeking them in their holes, under
stones in walls : having found one, the unlucky insect
was either placed on the ground, or on a piece of cloth,
the wizard pursuing it with a stick until its feet were
broken ; divination was made according to which feet
were missing : even the kings consulted these magicians
and followed their instructions, but only to foretell the
results of war and other important national events. On
entering a temple, a man would put his hand to his
temple, and whether he succeeded in pulling out a hair
or no, he blew in the air to the idols such as contained
the evil spirit, as if blowing it a kiss.

Instead of ordinary letters, the Peruvians used two
forms of writing : one, the most ancient, was a species
of hieroglyphic ; the other was knots made on threads
of different coloured wools called Quipos, This is not
considered to have originated in Peru, as they are heard
of in Mexico and elsewhere. It was a very complicated
process, with its various colours and method of inter-
twining as well as twisting the knots, etc. ; but it is
said that the notification became so perfected that main
events were recorded and interpreted : such as the list
of the army, taxes, enrolment of tribes, a register of the
births, deaths, etc., etc.

Architecture was one of the marvels of the Peruvians :
Father Acosta speaks of a stone he measured which was
38 feet long and 18 feet wide, but says there were stones
of far greater proportion. They had great fear of
eclipses of the sun and moon, more especially of the
latter, believing that they might explode upon the

l66 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

earth. To avert their ill effects, they made prodigious
noises by playing upon instruments and shouting ; to
add still more to the turmoil, they belaboured the
dogs to make them howl. The waning of the moon
they explained by declaring that the planet was
sickening.

The rainbow was an object of concern ; when seen
the mouth should be firmly closed and covered with the
hand ; or, if opened ever so slightly, it would be the
means of making the teeth rot.

Although in a much lesser degree than the Sun, the
Moon as both its sister and wife, was an object of great
veneration. Thunder, lightning, and thunderbolts were
the Sun’s executioners ; and in common with Athens
and Rome, she was regarded as the protecting Deity
during the period of childbirth. The Peruvians, until
the arrival of the Spaniards, also worshipped, in common
with the Greeks — Isis.

They believed that man consisted of two parts — the
soul and the body. The one animated by an immortal
spirit, the other by Earth. There was an ultimate
heaven for the good as a reward for their virtues ;
a middle haven for the undistinguishable ; and a hell
for the criminal — ^which was in the centre of the Earth.

At one of their feasts they made a particular kind of
bread, into the composition of which the blood of young
children had been added. This blood was drawn from
between the eyebrows ; the rubbing of this bread over
the head, face, stomach, arms and legs was supposed to
keep anyone immune from all sickness ; a piece of this
same substance, hanging on the outside of the door
proclaimed that the people of that particular house had
been purified.

Every one, from the Inca downwards, was bound to
conform to this custom. After this, prayer was offered to

Peru {Ancient Incas)

167

the Sun, begging its protection against all that was harm-
ful. As if in reply to this, four extravagantly disguised
couriers oi the Sun, rising out of the supposed unknown,
from the four quarters of the Earth, by touching the
heads of the Incas, acclaimed that they had been
commanded to chase away all the sources of ill health.
Every one stood at their doors when these messengers
passed through the streets, at the same time touching
their own heads, faces, stomachs, legs, and arms, etc.,
to make themselves immune from disease. The same
night, carrying lighted torches, the Sun’s messengers
went through the streets ridding the town from any
malignant disease ; finally the torches were thrown into
the river. The following five or six days were given up
to feasting and public rejoicings. They also held a
form of harvest thanksgiving, offering up to the Sun
a number of tame rabbits ; these were thrown on to a
fire made for the purpose.

It was customary for every man to possess two
drinking cups ; they were either of gold or silver, or
even of wood, and were of exactly similar size and shape.
At all the feasts there was an all-round mutual invita-
tion to drain the cup ; the custom was for the instigator
to fill both cups equally ; then holding one in each hand,
if his guest was of superior rank, with compliments he
was presented with the cup held in the right hand ; if
inferior, he was given the one in the host’s left hand.
The authority for this does not state whether this
custom did or did not, at the end of the day, lead to a
brawl, or whether it did not usually end in a free fight.

A great feast was held every month during the year,
the principal ones being always those which related to
the Sun ; the most celebrated of all was held in the
summer solstice. At this were assembled a vast throng
of people from all the countries who were under the

i68 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

dominion of the Inca ; such as were unable to be
present sent their sons and others of importance to
represent them. The poorer classes also assembled to
witness this huge throng of people, who wore their most
magnificent court dresses and jewels and carried their
finest arms, while servants held canopies of brightly
coloured feathers and cloths above the heads of their
lords as an emblem of nobility. They preferred to
sacrifice twin-bom animals, both because they were
a rarity as well as an abnormality.

As there would not have been sufficient space in the
dwellings, most of the visitors encamped in the public
squares and streets. Women were sent for from the
neighbouring country to prepare the food for this vast
throng, and especially to knead a sort of cake composed
of boiled maize. The virgins of the Sun prepared this
repast for the Inca and nobles, as well as other foods
which had been prepared the night before.

Previous to this feast there had been during the last
three days a rigorous fast, when the only food permitted
was a small portion of white raw com and a special kind
of herb. In no house was a fire allowed to be lit.

The instant the Sun’s first rays fell on the neighbouring
hill-top, a great shout arose from the crowd, as they
burst into song and played joyous and triumphant airs
on their rude instruments. The Inca then arose, and
taking two golden vases filled with chichu (sacred liquid),
prepared by the chosen virgins, he offered up the one
in his right hand to the Sun by pouring it into a recep-
tacle, from which was a tube whence it ran into the
rock, thereby reaching the sacred shrine. With his left
hand he poured a quantity of chichu into the hand of each
of his family and pledged to their future prosperity.

The Inca then, with his family and the Curacas (con-
quered princes), went into the temple and offered up

Peru (Ancient Incas)

169

the two golden vases to the Sun ; the remainder of the
people had to offer their gifts through the priests ; after
which they all returned to the public square to assist
at the sacrifices offered by the High Priest on the table
or altar. Llamas were chosen for this purpose, the
victim being held by four servants of the priest, with
its face towards the east ; its entrails were afterwards
examined to see whether the omens were propitious.

According to Inca Garcilasso, these sacrifices had
been modified. The principal thank-offering to the Sun
consisted of lambs, sheep and sterile animals ; also
rabbits, birds and even vegetables ; including finely-
made clothes, but never a human sacrifice.

Many authorities declared that human sacrifices,
usually young children, were occasionally made to the
Sun ; and that when young children and youths were
sacrificed, the idols buried with the mummies lived on
human flesh. It was not unusual, especially when comets
. ppeared or epidemics broke out, or as an offering for
mercy for a man who was incurably ill on his death-bed,
for children from the age of 4 to 10 to be sacrificed at
one time. Every year over 2000 especially prepared
men were sacrificed to two renowned gods ; each part
of the individual — ears, tongue, lips and nose were
solemnly offered to the gods. Sometimes also young
virgins met with the same fate.

When an Inca or a great chief died, his wives, concu-
bines and servants were buried with him. Occasionally
some of the wives, who shrank from this dreadful ordeal
preferred suicide rather than endure the life of
contempt, for those who shrank from this sacrifice, they
would otherwise be subjected to.

In the practice of me^cine the Peruvians resorted to
bleeding, especially in the case of headaches, when they
were bled from between the eyebrows — the instrument

170 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

used being a piece of obsidian. They were well aware
of the specific values of herbs. The plant that we call
tobacco was used principally as snuff. When the
Spaniards found out its virtues they named it the
‘‘sainted herb.”

Wliile the kings were buried in a huge sepulchre made
of stones in the form of pyramids covered with sand,
and pebbled until it resembled a small hill, their vassals,
especially in the south, were found in gold or silver vases
in the shape of urns — ^their intestines having been
removed — in meadows or forests. Sometimes, also, the
places of burial had pavements and vaults. The poorer
people were often buried only a few inches below the
earth, covered by a sprinkling of sand, or in such
narrow fissures in the rocks that it seemed incredible
how they could have been wedged in.

The ancient Peruvians were buried with their feet
drawn up, their faces towards the west ; large stores of
provisions in round earthen pots were also placed in the
sepulchres, which were made without doors. The
corpses were foimd muffled up in large quantities of
cloth, each resembling a large statue, with a round head,
two knees, and two large feet. Strong netting of coarse
thread was bound over a thick mat of rushes, and in
this was wrapped the corpse. When the mat was
removed a large roll of cotton was seen, which entirely
covered the body, and had kept two or three canes
secure at the sides ; occasionally a stick was across the
shoulders. Beneath this roll was another roll of red
or varied coloured cloth or wool. This completely
enveloped the mummy, at the end of which were one or
two cloths resembling sheets ; small idols and valued
stones, etc., were at the bottom of all.

The position of the mummy was ” squatting,” the
knees drawn up to the chin, the arms either crossed over

Peru (Ancient Incas) 171

the breast or supporting the chin ; in the mouth was
always a small disc of copper or gold to pay for the
journey. Although in most cases the corpses were in
fair preservation, the flesh had shrunk and the features
were disfigured. The hair, which was black, was always
in perfect preservation, but the blackness had faded
and become russet coloured.

It seems never to have been proved whether this
embalming was the work of man or of nature — ^in other
words, due to the extreme dryness of the climate ; yet
it is significant that the corpses of the Incas were in a
much more perfect state of preservation than those of
the plebeian orders of which millions have been found.
In rainy districts, however, their corpses have been
reduced to mere skeletons.

The Incas had their greatest treasures buried with
them ; it was in desecrating their tombs that their
Spanish conquerors found their booty. In the i6th
century, Pope Alexander the Sixth took upon himself to
give to Portugal all the dominions in the East ; to
Spain he presented all the countries they had discovered
in the West. This donation to his Catholic supporters
embraced the whole of the South American Continent,
and included the Empire of Peru. In 1530, a Dominican
monk, appointed for that purpose and supported by
armed soldiery, slaughtered and took prisoners the
reigning Inca of Peru, Huayna Capac, with 5000 of his
unarmed and peaceful followers, for the reason that
they refused to yeeld to the Gospell.” Thus have
passed out of existence a highly civilized people The
ethics for this wholesale slaughter by their invaders is
too obvious for comment.

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

The Philippine Islands were discovered by Magellan in
1520, and named by the Spaniards in honour of their
king, Philip II. By the Portuguese they were known
as Manille, the ancient name given them by Ptolemy.
According to ancient voyagers, their characteristics
differed little from those of the Malays, but the inland
mountain people had no resemblance to those on the
coast. They lived on fruit and roots, and ate monkeys,
snakes and rats. There were no universal laws ; each
tribe obeyed the patriarch of its own family. Neither
had they any specified dwelling-places — excepting when
the rains made this imperative — sleeping in trees, on
the ground, in fact wherever darkness overtook them.
The Jesuits and other missionaries have declared that
the natives had tails, five or six inches long.

These people had a mortal dread and hatred of the
Spaniards ; if by chance they managed to kill a solitary
straggler, their delight was to drink out of his skull.
When they first saw these deadly foes, with swords
dangling from their waists, eating hard biscuits, and
puffing smoke out of their mouths, they took them for
ferocious monsters with iron tails, eating stones, and
belching smoke.

At Samar, one of the islands of the group, it is related
by the natives that there was another islet inhabited
entirely by women ; this was visited periodically by
the men of an adjoining island, who removed all male
offspring of whom they were the fathers. This islet
was named the Isle of Amazon.

m

Philippine Islands

Among the wild men of the hills, it was a recognized
law that anyone benefiting in any way through another
became his slave. A father buying out his son from
slavery immediately showed his paternal affection by
making him his slave ; the same compliment might be
reversed, in which case the father became the slave. If
a crime was committed by any individual, his whole
family was held responsible and might be sold as slaves.
Strangers were looked upon with suspicion — ^in other
words as enemies. These people had a horror of theft ;
a liaison was merely a pastime, an exchange for a
present or an excuse for giving one ; for incest the
culprits were put into a weighted sack and thrown into
the river.

Should a man be determined to commit a murder, he
first amassed as much money as was possible, so as to
settle with his avengers ; this did not prevent his being
acclaimed a brave, which carried with it the right to
wear a red turban. If a man succeeded in killing
seven at divers times, he could wear a turban of varied
colours, called haxache.

Many of the natives in the island of Suzon were very
black, with tangled hair; not tall, but remarkably
strong and ferocious. They were, indeed, a great
menace to their neighbours, attacking towns and often
murdering the inhabitants. In the province of Zambala
the people wore the front part of their hair shaved, and
a large lock of loose hair falling over their foreheads.

In these islands the people were adepts at manu-
facturing poisons out of various herbs, some of which,
de Morgan declares, would cause death by merely being
touched by the hands and feet, or sleeping on them.
There were antidotes to these poisons in other herbs,
which, should they be known and found in time, would
counteract their deadly effects.

174 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

In some of the provinces bows and arrows were used,
but more usually lances and shields of light wood which
completely covered the users. At their waist hung a
dagger, four inches wide and nine inches in length ; if
they encountered an antagonist, with one hand they
seized hold of his hair ; with the other, with one stroke
from this dagger they cut off his head, which was, later,
hung up in their houses.

Lawless and savage as these people were, their first
law was to honour their parents. A council of the elders
settled all disputes ; in criminal cases, if the offender
was unable to pay a sufficiently large recompense, his
life was then and there forfeited. Payment could be
made also as an atonement for murder ; but if again
this was not forthcoming, the family of the deceased
had the right to retaliate. In case of theft, if the thief
was not known, every one who could be suspected was
called upon to lay, unseen by the others, some article
under a cloth spread out for the purpose — ^this being a
hint to the thief that, if he quietly returned the missing
article, no further consequences would ensue. Did this
method of recovery fail, they had recourse to an ordeal.
All the accused voluntarily submitted to the trial ; they
plunged into a river and were totally immersed : the
first one who came to the surface for breath was con-
sidered the offender ; it is hardly necessary to say that
it often happened at this ordeal that many innocent
people, in their attempt to prove their innocence, were
drowned.

Another form of ordeal was to call upon all the
suspects to snatch a stone out of a pot of boiling water ;
anyone who refused was compelled to pay an equivalent
value of the article stolen. Thus, apparently, in these
ordeals, someone, whether innocent or guilty, would
have to recompense the owner of the stolen property ;

Philippine Islands 175

and by this system all property was remarkably safely
insured.

But they had the worst possible form of profiteering
in nuptual fees. The bridegroom was called upon to
pay when entering his house, a fee called passava ; for
speaking to his wife a toll called patignog ; to eat and
drink with her an exactment called passalog ; finally a
douceur which was called ghinapmng, the amount of
which was in accordance to his means. These marriage
levies appear to have been scooped up by the parents
of his bride. In cases of infidelity, compensation was
given which completely whitewashed the delinquents,
removing any temporary aggravation which might have
been felt ; on the whole, indeed, it was considered
rather a tribute to the charms of the wife.

When meeting a superior in the Philippines, the
natives bent low and placed both hands on their cheeks,
at the same time lifting one foot off the ground with
bended knee. When meeting an equal they extended
their clasped hands toward each other, bowing at the
same time.

They named their newly born child from the first
article, or herb, they had seen.

A man on discovering that his bride was yet a maid
was deeply dissatisfied ; he considered that he had
chosen an unwanted — a left over, one whom no one had
ever desired nor debauched. Four-footed animals were
always sacrificed to their gods, and the first blow of
death was given to it by a young girl.

The natives never ate alone ; a man, on the loss of
his wife, was served for three days during his bereave-
ment by three widowers : a woman, on losing her
husband, was looked after for the same period by three
widows.

It was a custom to adopt each other in the presence

176 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

of their relations. The adopted son gave over all he
possessed to the one who had adopted him. In return,
he was allowed to remain in his house, under his control ;
and later, to receive a portion of the inheritance which
came to the other sons.

Many of these people worshipped the Sun and Moon ;
others held in adoration a special bird marked with
yellow, which lived in the mountain woods. They had
no temples nor places of pubhc worship ; but each in
his home worshipped a shrine of his own idols. Neither
had they, says de Morgan, any priests, but a few old
men and women, who were also reverenced as sorcerers
and witches. The poor buried their dead under the
floors of their houses, kept their bones for a long time
in boxes and worshipped their skulls. The more wealthy
used decorated coftos and placed the dead surrounded
by palings, side by side with another coffin containing
the deceased’s most valued possessions.

POLAND

Many centuries ago there existed a legend in Poland,
which told that once there lived three brothers : their
names were Lech, Czech, and Rus. These brothers met
at a place since called Poynan, which was afterwards
the capital of the Polish territory annexed by Germany.
After a while these brothers parted, each settling in a
country which was named after him. Rus gave the name
to Russia, Czech to Bohemia (now Czecho-slovakia),
and Lech’s country was called Lechia — ^now Poland.

One day while Lech was exploring the country, he
perceived a nest of white eagles, from which is derived
the Polish coat of arms ; on this spot, in course of time,
a town was erected called Gniezno, derived from a
Polish word signifying nest.

The Poles were a curiously superstitious race. In
certain localities the people chased death from their
villages during the spring ; this custom was associated
with a variety of mystical rites, for they had a pre-
conceived belief that winter is the season of death.
Thus they connected the death of vegetation as
gradually developing into death itself, and this evolved
into chasing the evil which was the origin of death.

The harvest rites showed many similarities to the
spring rites. The soul of a tree was either represented
as a young tree, or possibly a person. The spirit, or
soul, of corn was usually believed to pass into the last
person who cut the sheaf — ^possibly the waving of the
com suggested to their minds the attempt of escape,
or some birds in that sheaf conveyed the idea of the
human form.

12

Xy8 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

Water was regarded as a powerful factor by these
people ; they believed it might even engender life. On
their Easter Monday, should anyone pour water over
another it was a sign of great good fortune.

On the eve of the winter solstice a special ceremony
took place. The day itself was held as a fast day, but
as soon as the first stars illuminated the heavens supper
was served, which consisted usually only of fish, although
in some districts there were as many dishes as there were
apostles. The number of persons at supper must never
be uneven, or it would be courting disaster. A place
was always laid for a guest who had not yet arrived —
maybe one from some unknown world.

These winter solstice rites are said to have been
derived from a mutual origin — the feasts of Saturnalia,
of the Greeks and Romans. When this feast was over
the family paid a visit to the animals and the bees :
when the orchard was reached the head of the family
shook the fruit trees, in order to wake them, at the
same time asking whether they would be fruitful. The
remainder of the family then gave guarantees that the
trees would bear much fruit that year.

At this season the Szopka, or Puppet Show of the
Nativity, brought hence from other lands, was exhibited
in the Churches ; but being considered too secular, they
were afterwards taken to the churchyards, and later to
the market-places and streets. On New Year’s Eve a
ceremony was held of chasing the Old Year. In
ancient times they chased the spirits of the departed
dead by cracking of whips, or in the country by
beating the fences with sticks. In Pomerania special
cakes were made which were distributed among the
household, also to all the domestic animals and to
male birds.

One of their customs was to fashion an ef6gy of death

Poland

179

out of straw, place it on a card, and afterwards bum or
drown it in the village ; this was done with the idea of
exterminating death. These people had a sort of dance,
when they would leap or dance with the idea of securing
what each most desired : the farmer did so in order to
obtain a good harvest of oats and wheat ; his wife for
hemp, and the daughters for herbs.

The Poles were great believers in good and bad luck ;
whether they were born in a fortunate or unfortunate
moment played a very important part in the beliefs of
these people. If anyone was born in an evil hour he
would assuredly either die or lead a life wholly destitute
of prosperity : his work, too, would be affected, such
as the planting of corn ; and his purchase of cattle
would be so unprofitable that he invariably sold it again
to another buyer. Witches, too, those who possessed
the evil eye, also unpropitious stars, all exerted their
mysterious influence on such a person.

On the other hand, all that was desirable or profitable
,70uld be the portion of one who was born at a lucky
moment ; it even affected such matters as borrowing
(or lending). In some districts certain articles, as well
as clothing, were lent up to mid-day ; in the afternoon
the farmer’s wife refused to lend, otherwise her feet
would sorely trouble her. When persons returned what
was lent or borrowed, it had to be at the same hour. In
other districts milk, cheese, butter and eggs were not
sold after sunset, otherwise witches would have easier
access to the cows and the hens would cease laying.
And should there be a baby in the hut, there must be
no borrowing of anything, or prosperity would forsake
the household, and the future of the infant be affected.
Indeed, borrowing was prohibited for twelve days after
a child was born. Should a death occur in a house, the
smallest hospitality would be refused ; also the lending

i8o Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

of mares or cows, lest it established a link between the
living and the dead.

A bride must be married fasting ; and if later she
became enceinte, mice would without doubt nibble the
garments of anyone who refused her the smallest request.
Among the Polish customs, when a would-be suitor
arrived at the house of his beloved, before asking
consent of her parents a meal might perhaps be prepared,
consisting of black soup made out of duck’s blood, and
a water melon for dessert. Should such a meal be
served, the young man knew without doubt that his
suit would be rejected.

Among the superstitions was one against borrowing
hot embers ; there was indeed a saying that whosoever
borrowed any form of heat in this life would have to
return it when he arrived in Hades. When embers
were taken to a hut, one must never bid farewell to the
owners, or it might cause conflagration ; but should
this superstition be disregarded, the only remedy was
to say, '' Lift the tail of the cow.”

The process of fire suggests to the primitive mind the
fact of existence — ^the first spark ; while the extinction
of fire suggests the extinction of life, in other words
of death.

It was an old Polish custom that when animals were
taken to market, they had to leave their stables with
their heads to the door. This backward movement
represented a return to their infancy, and in this way
their new conditions would not harm them. Children,
on the contrary, were not allowed to walk backwards,
or it would have the effect of pushing their mothers into
their graves.

There seems to have been a universal wish to keep
some memento of an animal or fowl when it was sold,
either by plucking out a small number of hairs, or a few

Poland

l8i

feathers should it be a bird. In certain localities, when
a farmer had purchased a horse, before taking it to its
stable he tied it up in an orchard to a tree laden with
much fruit, believing that by so doing it would keep in
good condition. Should there, however, be no orchard,
the farmer’s wife would be obliged to give it its food
on a cushion, so that it might grow as fat as the cushion.
Even money itself was included in the superstitions of
Poland, there being a strong belief that a form of
witchery existed in certain of the coins.

POLYNESIA

This name includes a very large number of islands in
the South Pacific Ocean ; the principal ones, and those
best known are : Fiji, of the Fiji group ; Tonga, of
the “Friendly” group; Samoa, of the ** Navigator”
group ; Tahiti, of the “ Society ” group ; The Paumoter
group ; and Easter Island.

Their existence was reported by navigators in the
sixteenth century ; it was not, however, until the latter
end of the eighteenth century, and especially owing
to the celebrated Captain Cook’s voyage in 1770, that
anything definite was known of the people ; nor,
except at Easter Island, have there been any records
of an earlier race.

In the state in which they were discovered, there were
no records beyond those handed down for about four
generations ; in other words, practically from the
date they first saw a white man, there seemed to have
been no previous event worthy of record on which any
other could be based.

From a similarity of language, features, hair, it is
supposed that the inhabitants of the whole group of
islands owe their origin to Malay and China, with a
possible blending of Maoris from New Zealand. Most
of their customs have a similarity, though in each
group of islands there are rites, ceremonies, etc., which
the geological formation, environment, fertility, and
natural resources have evoked. For example, in the
Fijis there are men-o-bush (bushmen) who are something
infinitely wilder, more weird in their natures than the

Polynesia 183

coast dwellers ; consequently some of their customs
differ from those who live by fishing.

Further afield, in the Marquesas Islands, where the
land is not more than a few feet above the level of the
sea, the staple food is cocoanuts and fish, which entails
deep sea fishing : the inhabitants are naturally sea-
farers.

In islands ^vhere food is easy to procure, a state of
dolce far niente prevails, and all rites, ceremonies, etc.,
are so adapted as to make the enjoyment of this state
more or less complete, and in accordance with the wishes
of the gods ; the desires, of course, being father to the
laws of do little,” to the minimum of " don’ts.” This
pliilosophy seems also to have been the basis of their
hospitality, as well as their form of communion with
their gods, past and present.

Occasionally one island would raid another ; if
successful they killed the male prisoners, while the
females would be the spoil. This may be interpreted
into Nature’s law of the survival of the fittest, as well
as the prevention of prolonged inter-breeding. Crime,
as we know it, had no existence ; the taboo and their
gods saw that they committed none.

TONGA ISLAND

The consultation of the oracle in Tonga Island, of the
** Friendly ” group, described by Mr. Mariner, must
have been an interesting ceremony. A hog, yams, and
other dainties having been prepared the previous night,
they were carried next morning to the place where the
priest was to be found. The chiefs and matabooles (of
next importance to the chiefs), arrayed in mats, arrived
at the same spot. The priest then seated himself, while
the matabooles sat on each side of him forming a semi-
circle. At the end was seated the man who had prepared
the kava, a substance derived from chewing roots ; this
was served up, according to each man’s rank, in cocoa-
nut bowls, which have since become of great value.

This kava was closely identified with many religious
ceremonies. It may be stated that no one chewed this
delectable concoction but young persons who had clean
mouths, good teeth, and were not suffering from colds.
Behind the cooks, attendants, etc., the chiefs sat, con-
ceiving that such humiliation would be acceptable to
the gods.

From the moment all were seated, it was believed
that the god inspired the priest, who sat for a while with
his hands clasped in front of him, his eyes cast down.
While the food was being handed round, the matabooles
occasionally consulted him. At times he replied, at
others he was apparently completely absorbed. When
first he spoke, his voice was low and much altered, but
he gradually assumed his natural voice, although it was
occasionally pitched louder. The words he uttered
were believed to be the interpretation of the divinity

LAIOOKA, OK AFoKAI IX I'OXGATA BOO.

i85

Tonga Island

who inspired him, consequently they were spoken in the
first person as though he were the god. He was usually
dignified, unemotional; but occasionally he became
fierce, was seized with trembling, choked with emotion,
tears streamed from his eyes. Yet, both before and
after this convulsion, we hear that he ate as much food
as four hungry people.

When he became once more normal, he remained
quiet for a time ; then, taking up a club which had been
purposely laid beside him, he threw it over and fixed
his eyes upon it. Then looking up several times, some-
times also to the right and left of it, he finally took it
up. and after a moment’s pause struck the ground
violently. From that moment the spirit of the god was
supposed to have left the priest, who now rose and
mingled with the rest of the people.

Omens were considered by the Tongas as direct com-
munications from the gods and could be counted upon
t ■) work in agreement with their own wishes ; charms
were thus used to bring evil and disaster upon people
by invoking the aid of these divinities, the result being
usually successful ; and although regarded as somewhat
contemptible, they did not constitute a crime. Thunder
and lightning were particularly evil omens, signifying
a possible invasion, the death of a great chief, or the
arrival of a European ship, etc. Should anyone happen
to sneeze when setting out on an expedition, it portrayed
most serious consequences. Mr. Mariner was only
rescued in time from possible dire consequences, having
accidentally sneezed in the king’s house as he was about
to perform certain rites at his father’s grave.

We are given some interesting particulars of a chief’s
wedding. The bride was lavishly perfumed with cocoa-
nut oil and scented with sandal-wood, but she must have
presented a somewhat grotesque appearance, for

z86 Ancient Rites ani Ceremonies

although clad in about forty yards of beautiful mats
from the Navigator’s Islands, which were as soft as silk,
her arms stuck out from her body. Nor could she sit
down owing to these encumbrances ; the only position
she could adopt was a half-sitting one, leaning against
her female attendants, who had also to raise her when
she wished to shift her position. Her principal brides-
maid, aged about five, was dressed exactly like the
bride ; the others, who were several years older, wore
rather fewer mats.

The party then adjourned to the mot at (an open grass
space), where the bridegroom, with many other chiefs
and matabooles, was awaiting their arrival : the bride
and her attendants seated themselves on the grass
facing the bridegroom. Presently a woman, with her
face covered with a white gnato (a sort of thin cotton)
advanced; she walked to the upper end, where was
another woman with a large roll of gnato, a wooden
pillow, and a bottle of oil. The veiled female took the
gnato from the other, wrapped herself up in it, and
apparently went to sleep. Directly this happened, the
bridegroom took his bride by the hand, led her into the
house, and seated her on his left hand.

Some twenty baked hogs were now brought into the
moral : an ample allowance was served out to the
chiefs, each one putting it into his bosom, as it would
have been taboo for them to touch it. The remainder
of the food was scrambled for at a given signal.

The woman, who had apparently gone to sleep, now
reappeared, and the bridegroom led his bride by her
left hand to his house, escorted by her attendants.
Everyone now having departed, he then conducted her
into the house prepared for her reception, of which each
of his brides had at least one, and which was covered
by fencing. He then left her to have her mats

Tonga Island

187

removed, which were replaced by her ordinary clothing.

While she was amusing herself with talking to her
women, her husband presided at a feast ; but most of
the guests preferred to take their portions home, except
the poorest, whose portion was so small they consumed
it immediately. At this feast the bride was not present,
as that would have been a serious breach of etiquette.
Music and dancing now followed ; when this was ended,
a kind of address on morals was delivered by one of the
old matabooles.

The company having dispersed, the bridegroom went
to his house and sent for his bride, who arrived imme-
diately. Directly they had retired, the lights were
extinguished ; and a man purposely placed at the
door proclaimed this fact to the people by three hideous
sorts of war-whoops, which he followed up by a loud and
oft-repeated sound of the counch.

We are told that the word taboo signifies something
fc rbidden, sacred to the gods. It W'as often a great
preventative against stealing, or entering your neigh-
bour’s grounds, etc. All persons having once broken
the taboo were more liable to be bitten by sharks : a
complicated form of logic then arose, for anyone
suspected of theft was compelled to go into water where
sharks abounded ; and whoever had the misfortime to
be bitten or eaten by one of these was considered to
have been the thief.

Anyone touching a dead chief would be tabooed for
ten lunar months, unless he was himself a chief, when
he would be under the ban for only three, four or five,
according to the rank of the dead chief. During that time
he must neither feed himself, nor use a toothpick with
his own hand. If there should be no one to feed him,
he must go on his hands and feet, and pick up his food
with his mouth. Should he disobey this, or any form

t 88 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

of taloo, it was believed that he would swell up and die.
To whistle was taboo, as it indicated a want of respect
to the gods. Another example of this distressing belief
was touching a chief of a higher rank, or anything which
belonged to him; before the delinquent ventured to
feed himself, he must touch the feet of this higher chief,
first with the palm, then with the back of each hand.

One of the curious beliefs of these people was that
the liver was the seat of courage : the larger the liver,
the more courageous would a man be.

Not to be tattooed was considered unmanly, so that
all underwent it when they were sufficiently old ; it
would also have been thought highly indecent, for
although they went to battle practically naked, tattoo-
ing gave all the appearance of clothing without the
encumbrance of it. Even a few women had marks on
the inside of their fingers.

Unlike most of the other islands, women were usually
treated with great consideration ; any other attitude
would have been regarded as dastardly. A chief paid
his eldest sister special respect, although this respect
took the curious form of never entering the house where
she was living. Among the nobility, heirs always
descended in the female line.

It was a common occurrence during the illness of
some great chief, that each day one of his relations
should have part or the whole of their little finger cut
off, to appease the gods for the ill deeds of the sick man.
This operation could not have involved much pain, as
Robert Kerr assures us that he has more than once seen
little children quarrelling as to who should have the
privilege of having their finger amputated. Children,
too, were often sacrificed on the illness of their relations.
Our last-named authority declares this barbarous deed
was not done out of a sense of callousness and cruelty,

Tonga Island

189

but with the false reasoning that it was better to
sacrifice one who was useless and might never grow up,
on the chance that a chief whom they all revered should
recover.

The funerals of great chiefs had many rites. First
the body had to be washed with oil and water ; then
his widows came to mourn and lament, the favourite
one being strangled the following day — the day of his
burial. On that day every man, woman, and child had
their heads closely shaved. Several of the deceased
man’s most prized possessions were placed in his grave
— whales’ teeth, beads, valuable mats, etc. At the
funeral the mourners wore old ragged mats, and leaves
of the ifi tree. The period of mourning differed, but
no man shaved his head for at least a month ; and the
female mourners remained in the fytoca (burial-place)
day and night for two months, with the exception of
short visits to neighbouring houses for the purpose of
e: ting.

The translation of the Death Lament for a fine young
chief of Vavaos, wailed by his four stricken widows as
they beat their breasts is typical :

" Alas ! woe is me !

Alas ! he is dead 1

Alas ! how I respect him ! ,

Alas ! how I lament his loss ! '

Alas ! here are his ruins ! ’*

Some of the curses used by the Tongas are distinctly
venemous, of which two are given : “ Bake your grand-
father till his skin turns to cracknell, and gnaw his skull
for your share.” ” Dig up your father by moonlight,
and make soup of his bones.”

There were some unusual laws of etiquette in regard
to their greatest men : when a king squatted, his

igo Ancient Rites ani Ceremonies

attendants formed a semicircle on each side. Should
the king address one of them he would reply from his
seat, unless any order were given him, when he rose
and seated himself in front of the king (or chief) with
his legs crossed ; for rising when merely asked a question
would be considered a gross act of rudeness. Even
when the monarch went out for a walk, anyone he
chanced to meet immediately sat down until he had
passed.

These people had a custom oi adopting children, even
should their mothers be alive ; by this means extra
necessities of life could be procured for them. Mr.
Mariner had himself a foster mother who, he says,
taught him many useful things : the correct pronun-
ciation of their language, and laughing him out of any
mode of dressing and customs unsuited to Tonga.*

As for their conception of a future existence, it was
generally believed, that when the bodies of the higher
orders died, the essence of their being became immortal.
They had no ideas of future gain or punishment ; they
were unable to express themselves in words, scarcely,
indeed, to know what they imagined ; they had no
records. Yet they were conscious of a superior power
to their own, to whom all was known ; they arrived at
the point of believing that each one had his own god,
who would look after him so long as he did what he
should do ; otherwise he would be left to misfortune and
death.

Their traditions are somewhat contradictory ; one of
their most ancient and widely credited was, that the
gods inhabited an island called Bolotoo ; and that the
Tonga Islands were drawn out of the water by the god

♦When Captain Cook visited this group of islands, he had a
great reception at Hapaee.

Tonga Island

191

Tangaloa, when fishing with a line and hook. Several
of the minor gods were eager to visit this island, inhabited
apparently, by no intelligent beings.

So about two hundred of them, male and female,
started in a large canoe, and found this island so vastly
to their liking, that they determined to make it their
home, and broke up their canoe out of which they made
smaller ones. But sickness, alas 1 broke out, and several
of them died. Such a catastrophe was wholly unfore-
seen ; moreover, one of the gods was inspired with a
message from one of the gods at Bolotoo, — ^that as they
had come to this island, breathed of its air, tasted of its
fruits, the decree had gone forth from the higher deities,
that they must in consequence become mortal. At this
they were sorely grieved, and began building other
canoes. Some started, with the understanding that
when they had reached the home of the Celestials, they
would return for their companions ; but their com-
panions waited in vain, for never again did they find
their beloved island of Bolotoo.

RUSSIA AND TART ARY

It would be impossible to take more than a bird’s-eye
view of so vast a country as Russia, extending as it does
on one side, from Persia almost to the Arctic Regions ;
on the other, from Poland to China ; comprising an
infinity of types, from the nomads, half barbaric tribes,
to the Muscovites, with their long inheritance of savagery,
their superficial coating of refinement and civilization.

Within this extensive area, existing from prehistoric
days, families had expanded east and west within their
characteristic latitudes ; while it is probable they came
into contact with other tribes, either to the north or
south, probably in search of food, or for the purpose of
exchange and barter. Thus there would arise a number
of tribes of the same race with similar characteristics ;
and, centrally between them, a number of tribes of
mixed races, in which existed the salient points of both.
Of these last mixed people, those on the coast of the
Baltic Sea, that is, between European Russia and
Afghanistan, became the most powerful ; their capital
was Novgorod, and they were reputed to be the ancient
Vandals.

At the end of their protracted war, to decide the
eventual rulership — Rurick, of all the aspirants, sur-
vived : he styled himself the Lord of the whole nation,
and his regime was called the Government of the
Russians, the date being about 800 a.d.

For the purpose of grouping their customs, Russia
includes the Western portion, the ancient home of the
Goths ; the Southern, Circassians and Cossacks, where
it is related that the Vandals or “ Wolves” originated ;

Russia and Tartary 193

the Eastern, the land of the Tartars, including a number
of tribes ; and the Northern, the Finlanders, which also
includes a number of villages reaching into the Arctic
Circle.

Russia was anciently called Rosseia, meaning — a
nation dispersed and scattered. One of their most
marked characteristics was ultra-religious superstition.
The ringing of bells was much practised, and during
great festi^^als they were kept ringing from morn to
night as an expression of adoration of the saints.
Ikons or images were revered by all classes, and known
by the name of Bogh (God), they were usually made in
painted wood. Several villages specialized in the
making of these Boghs, but ir the negotiating of them,
the word sell ” was always omitted.

In all houses these images were placed in some
prominent part of the room ; when anyone entered, he
immediately looked round for the ikon ; when he caught
sight of it, he crossed himself and said, ** Lord have
mercy.” He then saluted the host ; they shook hands,
kissed, looked at one another, then each bowed alter-
nately three or four times — and the greeting was over.

As an instance of the childish simplicity of the
peasants — the most trivial act, such as spitting over
one’s shoulder, would have the desired effect on the
weather : A God-fearing priest will allow himself to
be dragged over a field in the hope, that touched by this
magico-religious act, God will make the turnips grow
round and full. Another time he might be utilized
by the peasants on the land, who plucked out a few of
his longest hairs by the roots, in the belief that the
benevolent Creator of the Universe, would, in con-
sequence, give them an abundant harvest.

The Russians would eat neither hare nor pigeons : the
former because they were ” unclean,” the latter — ^because

13

194 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

they feared they were eating the Saint Esprit, The
number 40 was held in great veneration and, among
the Jews — the sacred number of 7. St. Nicolas was
their patron Saint, and in 1550 the following account
is given of one of his miracles : Michael Kysaletski
pursued a certain renowned Tartar, and when he found
he could not catch him, he said, Oh, Saint Nicolas,
bring me up with this hound.” The Tartar, hearing
this, cried out, '' Oh, Saint Nicolas, if this man catch me
by thy assistance, thou wilt perform no miracle : but
if thou rescuest me, who am a stranger to his faith, from
his pursuit, thy renown will be great.” Report relates
that Michael’s horse immediately stopped, and the
Tartar escaped.

In Lent, if any food were offered the poorest peasants,
they would reject it with a shudder and, snatching it
out of the children’s hands, throw it to the dogs. During
this season, the usually splendid equipages presented a
wretched appearance : is true there were several

horses to each, but they were old, lame, and generally
decrepit ; the harness was knotted together by broken
ropes while the coachmen and footmen wore shabby,
tattered liveries — all this being one of the necessary
mortifications of the flesh at this particular season.

The climate of Russia is a very extraordinary one : in
Moscow there is no spring : to use the words of Dr.
E. D. Clarke, “ Winter vanishes, and summer is.” Yet
the oriental habit of taking baths, and vapour baths of
suffocating heat was so strong, that this practice con-
tinued even in the summer months ; and it is remarkable
to read that in the public baths in winter the people
would, while in a state of perspiration, roll about naked
in the snow without incurring any ill effects.

Other customs the Muscovites shared in common
with the Orientals, was in ordering their slaves to rub

Russia and Tartary

m

the soles of their feet to induce sleep ; to keep buffoons,
whose miraculous stories were to effect the same
purpose ; and in howling and tearing their hair at the
funeral of their relations.

Russian funerals were sometimes strangely conducted :
the funeral service of Prince Galitzen was conducted
with the greater pomp, but on the way to interment
it developed into a farce. The body was placed in an
ordinary drosky, preceded by the Prince’s slaves, who
were all dressed in mourning ; and followed by the usual
poverty-stricken looking carriages used on such occa-
sions. We hear that the body was jolted about in a
most unseemly fashion, the priests and the people
running as fast as they were : Me ; some, indeed, of the
people were left straggling behind, quite out of breath
in their endeavours to keep up with their companions.

In spite of the squalor of the peasants, which seems
to have been unparalleled, there was no hamlet so
Wi etched as had not its vapour bath ; in this the whole
family bathed every Saturday and oftener during times
of illness. It was quite an ordinary sight, Joshia Conder
tells us, to see a hut with steam pouring from every
chink, and a family group — ^semi-nude — ^laughing and
joking with one another.

We are given further insight into the lives of these
peasant people by Mr. James : often, he says, each
family slept in one room, on mats or straw, usually in
their clothes. The most coveted place was on the ledge
of the stove ; infants were packed with a few garments
on to a square canvas frame, which was hung by strings
to a nail on the wall or the ceiling.

In Moscow and St. Petersburg the accommodation
for travellers is thus described : “ The dirt on the floor
may be removed fmly with an iron hoe, or a shovel.
These places are entirely destitute of beds : they

Ig 6 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

consist of bare walls with two or three old stuffed chairs,
ragged, rickety and full of vermin.” While, appar-
ently, the condition of the walls themselves was in
harmony with the rest of the room.

Noblemen might have several hundred servants yet
be none the poorer, their food and clothes being obtained
through the oppressed peasants; their wages, which
were rarely paid, came to about a halfpenny a day in
English money. Dr. Clarke says in his Travels through
Russia, date about 1800, that the trait of extorting
money and ill-treating the class just below their own
was typical of the whole nation ; slaves being the
lowest of all, could only vent their brutality on their
wives.

The following is one of the rites regarding a Russian
marriage : the bride had a crown of wormwood placed
on her head as a pleasing symbol of the bitterness of
wedlock. After the marriage ceremony was over, her
head was sprinkled with a handful of hops by a sexton
or clerk, who expressed his hope that she might prove
as fruitful as that plant. She was then wrapped up in
a warm coat, and conveyed by some old dames to her
husband’s house, a priest bearing a cross leading the
way ; while one of his acolytes, who wore a rough goat
skin, prayed that she might have as many children as
there were hairs on his goat’s skin.

When the newly wedded couple were seated at table,
bread and salt were handed them, and a group of boys
and girls sang the " epithalium ” (nuptual benediction),
which seems always to have been unnecessarily coarse ;
the married pair were then escorted to their apartment
by an old woman. When at last they were alone, the
affectionate husband ordered his bride to pull off one
of his buskins, having previously intimated that one
contained a jewel or a purse of money, the other — a

Russia and Tartary 197

whip. Should the bride be so unlucky as to choose the
one with the whip, it was, we hear, probable that she
received a slash as a forecast of what she might expect
in the future, for Russian husbands were often brutal
in the extreme. It has even been said that they
tortured their wives to death without punishment being
inflicted. If, qn the contrary, a woman, in trying to
save herself from his cruelty, happened to kill him,
she was buried up to her head in the ground, and died
a lingering death.

The Muscovite law forbade any marital intercourse on
Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays ; should this law
be disobeyed, the pair were compelled to bathe them-
selves before entering the church porch. Another law
was held very rigidly : should a man re-marry while
his wile was alive, he was forbidden to enter further
into the church than the door ; if he married a third
time he was excommunicated.

In 1635 Olearis gives in his Voyage de Muscovie, an
account of how a bridegroom carried off his bride on
horseback : their arrival was heralded by a rider in
front, while two others anned with swords accompanied
them to their house. In her triumphant progress, the
bride threw pieces of cloth or red serge on the road,
more especially near any ikons they happened to
pass. At the marriage feast she was veiled, but
was only permitted to remain a short time, when she
and the bridegroom retired. At the end of two
houis they returned; and we hear, that after much
eating and drinking, everyone fell asleep in one
another’s arms.

Polygamy was not allowed ; a widow or widower
might marry, but only three times. If a bride chanced
to be particularly lacking in good looks, great efforts
were made that her husband should not see her until

TgS Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

he was led up to her room. He may have had some-
thing of a shock at that moment, and we are told that
men were continually cheated by a substitute.

Allowances of food in certain parts of Russia were
sometimes lavish : it is stated that the labourer had an
allowance of 144 lbs. of fat, and 72 lbs. of rye flour in
14 days ; while a child had 3 candles of tallow, several
pounds of frozen butter, and a large piece of yellow
soap. Cockrane, in his narrative of a Pedestrian
Journey, declares that a Cossack guide consumed 20 lbs.
of horseflesh a day.

The national beverage was called quass, made by
mixing flour and water, then leaving it to ferment ; at
first strangers considered it most unpalatable, its flavour
resembling vinegar and water ; but after a while they
found it a refreshing and delectable drink.

A custom which had died out in other countries was
still prevalent in Russia in the early days of the nine-
teenth century : when banquets were given, all the
greatest delicacies, the choicest wines were reserved
for the host and his friends, who sat at the top of the
table. Those who sat at the bottom had to be content
with very inferior food, and what might be left after
the host and his more favoured guests had arrived at
the limit of their capacity.

An amusing story is told how two English gentlemen
of considerable property were travelling for pleasure in
South Russia. Receiving an invitation to dinner from
the ** Chief Admiral,” they accepted, and found them-
selves seated at the top of the table ; but being persis-
tently addressed as “ Milords Anglais,” they declared
they were no lords, merely ” English Gentlemen.”
" Allow me then to ask,” enquired their host, “ what is
the rank which you possess ? ” It was then explained
to these modest guests that there was no such title in

Russia and Tartary 199

Russia as “ Gentleman.” But, in spite of ominous
silence and meaning looks, the guests obstinately
declared that they had no other title than the one they
had given.

The following night they returned in the mo'-t
naive way to the “ Admiral’s ” table, and were
about to resume their places of the previous evening ;
but to their surprise they found each guest had moved
up a place, until they, themselves, must needs be seated
at the bottom of the table. In no way non-plussed,
they rather congratulated themselves that they might
now make a pleasant little party, further out of reach
of formal etiquette.

And it is said, that in spite of dining off black bread
and dirty soup, their predominating feeling was one of
amusement, probably realizing the irony of the fact,
that had they notified they were in His Majesty’s
Militia, or Members of the Volunteers in London, they
might have held honoured places at the Admiral’s”
banquet.

To the south of Russia, near the Baltic Sea, is the
home of the Cossack. We are given a description of
their national dance as wild and suggestive with its
varied movements, particularly of the arms and head,
and its short and sudden shrieks. It has been compared
to the Chinese dances, with the movements of the head
from one shoulder to the other, the hands held up close
to the ears.

The Circassians, whose country was on the border of
the Black Sea, were originally Mahometans ; they
kept many wives, but the marriage customs of the
better classes were of a far less brutal type than the
Muscovites’. The husband usually lived in a separate
apartment of the house, and was not over fond of
appearing when his wife was in the company of her

200

Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

friends, nor of having enquiries made in regard to her
health. She was not permitted to see her parents for
the first year of her marriage or until her first child was
born ; on this occasion her father paid her a visit,
removed the cap she had worn as a maid, and threw
over her the veil which would in future be her usual
head-dress. For the first time he then gave her — her
full marriage portion.

High-born Circassian children were removed from
their parents directly after birth, and entrusted to the
care of some gentleman of quality. From that time his
tutor superintended the education of the sons, more
particularly in all predatory adventures so common in
those times ; he also instructed them in the use of arms
and made them a present of these, and it was in
warrior’s attire that they were finally introduced to their
fathers.

The daughters had a poor time, being fed in a
wretchedly parsimonious fashion in order to keep them
slender. They were also kept constantly employed at
embroidery, weaving, fashioning straw mats and baskets.
Should their foster-father be so unlucky as to fail in
finding a husband for them of equal birth to their own,
his head was immediately cut off. Little affection
existed in these aristocratic circles, more especially on
the part of the fathers ; they had no wish to see their
sons until they were able to bear arms, nor their
daughters until they were married.

At Karagoss, in Tartary of the Crimea, the only part
the priest took in the marriage ceremony was to visit
the bride’s father and ask at her window whether she
was a consenting party ; in which case he said a few
prayers, blessed the pair in the name of the Prophet,
and withdrew. For this he received a handsome gift
and either a horse, a sheep, or a present of money. The

Russia and Tartary

201

most important ceremony took place the following day,
when the bride was brought to her husband’s house.
The bridegroom, wtio had previously feted his guests,
presented the most disreputable appearance as they all
set out to meet the bride: he was badly dressed, ill-
equipped, unshaven. As, under no circumstances, was
she to be seen before entering her husband’s home, her
father and brother had to see to this. The carriage was
draped inside with muslin, and if by mischance it arrived
too early at the village, it was kept waiting at the
entrance until the evening, that being the hour the
inhabitants were supposed to be occupied in eating.

When the bride arrived at her new home, sherbet
and a kind of sweetmeat was given her; a lamb was
also presented to her, and even put into her carriage,
being afterwards removed by an attendant. Every
living being having now apparently disappeared, she
was wrapped in a sheet, and carried by her brother into
the house, where she was placed behind a curtain in
one of the private rooms. Her relations and female
acquaintances then busied themselves in draping the
room with gay coverings, tapestries, and cushions, etc.

In the meantime her husband, having taken farewell
of most of his guests, began making his toilet, prepara-
tory to visiting his bride : he washed, shaved, donned
his most elegant dress. About midnight he was allowed
to see her for about an hour, when he was summoned
to withdraw. The following day he paid an early visit
to his best friends, each of whom he presented with a
small piece of his wife’s embroidery. But custom
compelled the bride to remain standing in the corner
of the room, while receiving the guests who came out
of curiosity to pay her their respects.

The primitive Circassians or Kergi were tall, the
majority of them having fair hair and green eyes; a

202

Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

married woman was tattooed on the nape of the neck.
These people tied polished bones under their feet, and
propelled themselves over the frozen snow and ice at
great speed.

The Kalmucks inhabited the Desert between the
Volga and the Don : they were nomads and worshipped
idols ; moreover they had prayers attached to the end
of their spears. There was little permanency in regard
to their marriages for although they took but one
wife, at the same time agreed to live together one year ;
if there was no child when the year had expired they
parted. No aspersions were cast on the woman, who
was greedily picked up for another trial." On the
other band, should a child be born, the marriage was
considered lawful. No Kalmuck priest married, but
he was privileged to receive hospitality from any other
man’s wife for one night, this being regarded by the
husband as a great honour.

Among the Tehuktchi tobacco was the commodity
most in request. Cockrane informs us that he has
seen boys and girls of 9 and 10 put a large leaf of it
into their mouths, refusing to take it out even should
meat be offered them ; in fact, " They eat, chew, smoke
and snuff tobacco all at the same time." These people
were allowed five wives, over whom they held the
power of life and death ; they could also compel them
to take " temporary " husbands should no heir by the
rightful husband be forthcoming.

Among the Kamschatdales, if a man became enamoured
of a maiden, he apprenticed himself to her father for
a certain period, at the end of which time the father
either gave his consent to the marriage, or compensated
the wooer for his past services. Should consent be
given, the marriage rites began by the would-be lover
stripping his bride of her clothing. No easy matter

Russia and Tartary

203

this, for she was fully prepared for this emergency,
being tightly bound by girdles and closely fitting straps.
Moreover a group of women, previously selected, were
prepared to come to her assistance when occasion
demanded. And between bites and scratches the lover
was reduced to a sorry plight, and seemed about to
retire from the fray, upon which the bride submissively
entreated the return of the bridegroom — and all was well.

Mahometan Tartars were closely veiled when walking
abroad : should they encounter a man, they bowed
their heads and took to flight. A story is told how an
English servant, brought into the Crimea by Admiral
Mordvinof, deeming it a monstrous act of discourtesy
that women should be forced to this expedient, whenever
he met any immediately covered his face and ran away.

This attitude on the part of a man actually trying
to avoid them, amazed these Tartar ladies to such a
pitch that they let part of their veils slip when next
they encountered him, but he ran all the faster. Their
curiosity was now so inflamed that they literally
“ hunted the man of misplaced chivalry, and, with
veils thrown back, they pursued him to his place of
retreat, where they demanded the meaning of such
unaccountable behaviour.

In North Russia (Laponia) the people were expert
“ inchaunters ; they tied knots on a string, which
hung down like a whip. When one of these was
loosened “ They rayse tolerable wynds '' ; when they
loosened another “ The wynd is more vehement ;
and by loosening the third ‘‘ They rayse playne tempests,
as in olde tyme, they were accustomed to rayse thunder
and lyghtnyng.” Moreover, these people were idolaters
“ honour5dng that lyvyng thyng that they meete fyrst
in the mornying, for the god of that day, and dyvyning
thereby theyre good luck or evyll.**

04

Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

They also erected great images of stone upon the
mountains, which they esteemed as gods, and before
which they solemnized marriages, beginning the same
with fire and flint. The mystery of flint, we hear, was
no less to be marvelled at in these ceremonies, for the
flint “ hath in it fire l5dng hid which does not appear
until moved by force.” It seems probable, that these
images were set up as dwelling-places for the souls of
the departed great men of the tribe, thus ensuring their
continued presence among their people.

This conception of ancestral reverence was carried
to the highest point by a tribe on the borders of Thibet :
it was a custom among these people to eat their dead
parents, ** so that for piety's sake they should not give
their parents any other sepulchre. . . . They make
handsome cups out of the heads of their parents, so
that when drinking out of them they may have them
in mind in the midst of their merry-making ” ; perhaps,
too, with the belief that the spirit of the dead was
present at and taking part in the feast. It seems also
possible that the ikons of later days were introduced by
the priests as a substitute for family ancestors.

The Calmuck Tartars, or Tatas, were a Mongolian
race, an offshoot of China. In the year 1235 these
people devastated Asia and the eastern portion of
Europe, including Poland, Bohemia and Himgary ; their
progress was suddenly stopped by the death of the
notorious Genghis, Khan of Tartary. It took a year to
elect a successor: by that time they had for ever
fallen out of their place as conquerors of a large portion
of the world. In the beginning of the thirteenth
century nearly all Christians believed them to be of
the lost Tribe of Israel : the Jews of Europe, especially
those of Germany, thinking the Mongols were sent
by God to deliver them from the oppression of the

Russia and Tariary 205

Christians, endeavoured in 1241 to smuggle arms
and provisions to them.

In appearance they have been described as being
the most peculiar and repulsive-looking people, with
their long greasy black hair hanging loose, broad noses,
very small eyes, and enormously protruding ears. It has
been further declared, “ They have no religion, fear
nothing, believe nothing, worship nothing but their
king, who calls himself King of Kings and Lord of
Lords.** They have also been spoken of as a detestable
nation of Satan, inhuman and beastly, thirsting for and
drinking blood, tearing and devouring the flesh of dogs
and men.** We are, moreover, told that they dressed
in ox-hides, were devoid of laws, and that the women
were taught to fight like men. In the middle of the
thirteenth century they carried their tents completely
set up in carts ; also, that should anyone tread on the
threshold of the chief, he was immediately put to death.

One of the kings, Baatu, ** hath sixteene ” wives ; each
had a separate dwelling with a number of smaller huts
attached. The first wife's place in her dwelling was in
the extreme West ; the others were grouped near by,
according to their rank, the last wife being in the
extreme East. By this device the camp of a rich man
resembled a small town, although the men in it were
few. We are further told that '' when they have
erected the master’s dwelling with the door to the
South, his couch is set up on the North side.** The side
of the women was always on the East ; that of the men
on the West.

Over the head of the master’s couch was always an
image of felt like a doll, which was called the brother
of the master ; a similar one hung over the head of
the mistress, which was called the mistress’s brother.
Higher up, between the two, there was “ a little leane

2o6 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

one,” which represented the guardian of the dwelling.
The fire was in the middle. In a conspicuous place on
the right side, at the foot of the mistress’s couch, was
a goat’s skin stuffed with wool, and near it a very small
doll or puppet loolsing towards the attendants and
women. Making the idols was a solemn ceremony ;
when completed a sheep was sacrificed.

The first milk of every fl[ock and of every brood of
mares w^as offered up to their idols, as was also the first
portion of their food and drink. The heart of an animal
was also offered up, left at the feet of the idol for a day,
then consumed. It has been stated that some Tartars
daily worshipped the animal they first saw when leaving
their dwelling. Other idols, dressed like dolls, were also
placed in the dwelling, while one which was kept outside,
was regarded as an evil deity to be propitiated by
sacrifices.

There were as many puppets in the dwelling as there
were men. ‘'They are made of straw, in which, eyes,
eyebrows, and mouths are drawn ; they are dressed up
to the waist. When a member of the family dies, his
puppet is taken out of the house ; care is taken never to
disturb nor move them.” When the Tartars assembled
to drink, the image over the master’s head was first
sprinkled, then the other images. Afterwards, with a
cup they sprinkled three times to the South as a rever-
ence to fire ; three times to the East — to air ; three
times to the West — to water ; three times to the North —
to the dead. This custom was common to many Mongol
tribes ; the libations were usually made in the morning,
before the master’s first meal, which he partook of
sitting on his couch, his favourite wife at his side.

They drank great quantities of the milk of mares,
sheep, goats, cows or camels ; there was always some
placed near the entry door ; also a musician with a reed

Russia and Tartary 207

pipe, or a kind of guitar with four, five, or nine strings.
The Calmucks used also a drum, a kind of zither, a
flute, and violin ; but the instrument most commonly
used was a two-stringed lute.

Drunkenness was considered a fine thing among the
Mongols. Carpini says, “ Their food is everything that
can be eaten : dogs, wolves, foxes, and even human
flesh.” They also eat lice, with something of the same
logic as the Hottentots used, saying, “ Why should I
not eat them that eat my son's flesh, and drink his
blood ? ”

In winter they made a drink of rice mixed with
honey : in summer they made one called Cosmes or
Kumiss. This kumiss was the separated milk of a
mare ; the butter being churned out of the pure milk
the residue fermented ; it had a pungent flavour and
left a taste of almonds on the tongue. “ It makes the
inner man most joyful, and also intoxicates weak
heads ” : it may be noted that only men were allowed
to milk the mares. They had also a still more alcoholic
drink called Areka which was distilled from kumiss ;
after the butter had been separated from the milk, they
dried the curd in the sun, until it was as hard as iron.
This was retained for winter use, as an article of diet.
Piau de Carpini says, ” They do drink right shamefully
and gluttonously,” but we are told they were exces-
sively careful not to drink water.

They eat all their dead animals, but only rats and
mice with short tails ; the long-tailed species they
refused to touch. Carpini further adds, “it is ususlI
when one has finished eating anything out of their own
separate bowls, to lick it clean, and replace it in the
folds of one’s gown.” There was no greater sin among
the Calmucks than waste ; if a guest was unwilling, or
imable, to consume his share, it was customary to carry

2o8 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

it away in his Saptargat, a square bag “ in which they
lay up their bones, when they have not time to gnaw
them thoroughly ” for a more leisurely meal. In this
way nothing was wasted, the oldest and greatest delica-
cies were first exhausted, before the latest morsels were
begun.

The women, who were great riders, kept pieces of
horseflesh under their saddles, rendering the meat
which received such a “ dressing ” particularly palatable
to their appetite...

The coiffure in both sexes was very elaborate, and
often ornamented on the top with peacock’s feathers
and precious stones. The dress of the young men and
maidens was so alike that it was difficult to distinguish
one from the other ; their high and flat-topped hair
dressing resembled a column, a rod protruded vertically
through the middle : at a distance they were said to
have resembled an army of soldiers with helmets.

Tartars always tied their gowns on the right side,
contrary to the Turks, who always tied theirs on the
left. The women we hear “ are exceeding fat, and
she who has the least nose is the most beautiful.” They
never washed clothes for fear that it might anger the
gods, and produce thunder ; while wet boots, put to
dry in the sun, attracted lightning.

It was customary among the Yen-ta people, that
when a woman was in childbirth the husband stretched
a net outside the tent and beat the air with a club until
the child was born, crying the while, Be off, devil.”
They had the greatest fear of thunder ; when there
was a thunderstorm, they wrapped themselves up in
black felt, and hid until it had passed off. Should a
man be killed by lightning he was held to be a saint.
It was usual for brothers to share the same wife;
should a man have no brother, his wife wore a head-

Russia and Tartary

209

dress with one horn ; if, on the contrary, he had
brothers, she added as many horns as there were
brothers.

The Calmucks never washed the pail used for milk
or curd fearing it would bring them ill luck ; as the
result, the inside of their vessels had a thick coating of
solidified curd, mixed with hair and dung. “ When the
evil wash their hands,” they filled their mouths with
water, and iet it trickle on their hands, for according to
one of their ancient laws no Mongol might put his hands
in water.

When a man married he was obliged to set up a tent,
and one for each of the children afterwards bom ;
they were of circular shape, and covered either by
well fitting mats or coarse woollen cloths. A man
might buy two or more sisters, but according to
Vincent de Beauvais, a Tartar never considered
a woman as his wife until she had borne him a
child. If she proved barren he might send her away ;
moreover, a husband did not obtain his wife’s dowry
until she had given him a son. We are also told that
a man could have a hundred wives, had he the means
of supporting them. They were usually selected from
their own relations, with the exception of their mothers
or any sisters by the same mother as himself : it was
also permitted a man to marry his deceased father’s
widows. In the case of the death of an elder brother,
it was expected that his younger brother would espouse
his wife ; but she was not easily induced to re-marry,
for the Calmucks believed that widows would, in a
future world, return to their first husbands. If families
wished to be united by marriage through young children,
the marriage could take place ; if the children died,
the marriage contract still held good.

It was considered dishonourable for a man to pay

14

210

Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

his addresses to a girl ; her father looked round, and
practically proposed to the youth of his choice, who
consulted with his parents as to whether he should
accept the proposal. A wooer was forbidden to enter
the house of his future bride ; he had to hear from
others, who knew her, all that concerned his betrothed.
All marriage presents were valued by an expert, and
a year later the husband sent the donors something of
great value, as a return gift. In some places it would
be considered immodest for her to be seen out of doors,
once she was married.

Sometimes a girl went through the primitive form of
marriage by riding off at full speed followed by her
suitor ; if he overtook her, he made her forthwith his
wife, and she returned with him to his tent; It has
been stated that no girl allowed herself to be overtaken
by a man for whom she had not a pre\dous liki^.

Capital punishment was carried out for a great
number of offences. For horse stealing, the thief was
cut in two with a sword. Among other offences, it
was considered a mortal sin to leave the bit in a horse’s
mouth while it was feeding, but the offender was given
the option of paying nine times the value of the animal.
For a trivial theft, the accused was ordered to receive
either 7 blows from a stick, 17, 37, or 47, etc., up to
107 blows, according to the injury received.

We are told of a wealthy and powerful Tartar who
was buried in most magnificent robes, but the place of
his interment was kept secret, lest his grave should be
despoiled. His friends killed his horse, filling the skin
with straw, which they suspended over his tomb, and
having eaten the flesh, they mourned and lamented
for about thirty days.

It occurred frequently that great people were buried
in th^ following manner : a secret visit was paid into

Russia and Tartary

2II

the steppe (plains), where a large pit was dug, and in
the side of the wall of the pit a grave was made, while
the slave he most dearly loved was buried under his
master. When he was nearly suffocated they took him
out, but this terrible ordeal was repeated three times :
should he survive, he was given his freedom, and
became a great man in the camp.

The dead man being now replaced in the grave, the
grass was put back where it had originally grown, so
that no one could find his last resting-place. Occasion-
allly a tent was erected above the grave, in which case
the body was watched and protected against all robbers.
Some tribes raised tumuli over the dead, and set up a
statue of the deceased, facing East, and holding a cup
in its hand. Pyramids were also occasionally erected,
and sometimes stone houses.

SOCIETY ISLANDS

These islands were named by Captain Cook in honour
of the Royal Society in 1770. Otahiti (Tahiti) is the
principal island of the group, and is said to have been
discovered by Quiros at the end of the sixteenth century,
all the inhabitants being usually known as Tahitians.
The predominating, and probably aboriginal type is
straight-haired, although, according to Captain Cook,
the principal chief, Tu Vairatoa, afterwards known as
Pomare, was a giant of 6 feet, 3 inches, and had a mop
of hair : this being a characteristic of the Fiji Islanders,
a people of different extraction.

The earliest visitors to the island record that the
colour of their skin ranged from almost that of a fair
European, suggesting some previous contact with white
men, to that of a dark copper colour mulatto, evidence
of a dark immigration. As is customary under these
mixed conditions, the fairer and more rare became the
dominant and aristocratic, while the darkest were the
lower class. Paleness of skin was, moreover, a sign of
beauty, and it was a practice among the higher orders
to undergo a course of beauty culture : this consisted
in remaining indoors for several months, clad in all
the clothing procurable, and dieting on the bread-fruit,
which was supposed to possess the remarkable quality
of whitening the skin.

Whatever their various racial characteristics of colour
or hair may have been, by reason of their environment
they became a languorous people, irresponsible, and
free of care ; occasionally, however, they tortured their
prisoners to death in the most barbarous fashion.

.as I’Rfskrvhd afti:r 1)i:.\t}i, ix Otaheite

Society Islands

213

Their dances and songs all tended in the same direc-
tion of exciting the amorous passions, but they held
other orgies. On the occasion of going to war, they
offered up a sacrifice to the god Eatooa; Mons. de
Bourgainville was an eyewitness to one of these sacri-
fices : after the victim was killed, probably some ne’er-
do-well beachcomber (a Toutou), his body was trussed
up to a pole by its hands and feet and laid on the beach
with the feet seaward.

The chief priest then spoke to the body, and seemed
to be expostulating and asking it questions, at the same
time making several demands, as though the corpse
could carry the message to the god, the principal wish
being that the foe should be vanquished. Then followed
more prayers, while hair was plucked from the corpse
and made into a special bundle.” Finally a dog was
killed to be served at the banquet for the god, its
entrails having been first carefully examined to discover
v/hether the omens were favourable to the expedition.
When the ceremony was ended, the Toulon's body was
buried in a hole and covered with stones.

The writer before alluded to speaks of these cere-
monies as religious massacres, held on frequent occasions,
the object being not only to propitiate but to feed the
gods. This distinctly intimates that at one time, their
ancestors must have enjoyed cannibalism ; and it was
the memory of these feasts of ghoulish frenzy which
remained as a bonne bouche for the gods. It appears,
also, that the left eye of the one sacrificed possessed
special virtues and was reserved as food for the chief.
After the battle, nearly all the prisoners were, of course,
offered up to the gods. The spirits of the tribe’s
ancestors were supposed to be present at these feasts,
both for the purpose of hearing the result of the battle,
and to partake of the feast or the soul of the feast.

214 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

It may be mentioned that a writer early in the nine-
teenth century says in regard to human sacrifice, which
prevailed from one end of the world to the other, What
then could induce mankind, universally, to imagine that
sacrifices could be agreeable to a Being whom they judged
superior to themselves ? ” He further suggests one motive
might be '‘some instinctive principle of our nature”
or a corrupt process of the translation of tradition.
It is possible to conceive it the work of some ghoul, a
savage form of our “natural” or village fool, who,
according to the earliest missionary, were believed to
be inspired by some god ; for this reason no control
was exercised over them. Although his actions were
considered the deeds of the god rather than that of
man, he was usually left unmolested. His life, we are
told, was a lonely one of fasting and meditation ; and
when the poor wretch became his own destroyer,
through starvation and neglect, there were none left
to lament.

From the earliest times the paramount chief relegated
to himself a divine right from a celestial ancestor. He
became almost too holy to touch the ground; in
Tahiti he was carried pick-a-back across the shoulders
of some sturdy man: “Your king,” he said, “is
carried by an animal but I ride on a man,” and so,
by relays of strong men, he was conveyed from place
to place.

Marriage was usually arranged by the parents, and
when matters had been settled to their mutual satisfac-
tion, the only remaining ceremony was to throw a
piece of tapa (native cloth) over the bride. Her husband
might discard her on any provocation, imaginary or
otherwise ; when men had sufficient means, they were
permitted many wives.

Seeing there were no women of sufficiently high rank

Society Islands

215

a chief married his sister ; since chiefs were the more
able to practise polygamy, and it was an ethic of
hospitality to allow other husbands, friends of the
owner, the loan of their wives ; it might therefore be
that so-called sisters were in reality half-sisters. They
even exchanged wives : there were no hard-and-fast
laws in Tahiti.

A form of infanticide was practised in this island by
a small body or society of extreme communists,
consisting of a number of men and women, who lived
promiscuously with one another. This Society was
known by the name of Arreoys. No outsiders were
admitted to their gatherings, at which the men held
wTestling bouts, while the women danced in such a
manner as to excite and urge on the competitors.

If, by chance, a woman became encienie, which
was rare owing to the promiscuity, the child was killed
at birth. Occasionally, maternal instinct asserted
itself and a mother longed for her child to be spared ;
the most effective way of bringing this about, was
by her finding a man who was willing to adopt it ; but
by this act both she and the child’s father were per-
manently banished from the privileges and companion-
ship of this Society. The missionary, Mr. Williams,
once questioned three native women in regard to the
Arreoys ; one admitted that she had destroyed nine
children, another seven, and another five.

The Tahitians were imable to credit the permanency
of a white man’s skin ; when it was exposed, they
would rub it with a wetted finger. To the women
especially this was a source of intense curiosity,
increased also by their being covered with clothes.
The first time the natives saw a man wearing boots,
they exclaimed that he had iron legs.

Captain Cook’s stay at Tahiti was of longer duration

2i6 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

than that ot any former navigator. He was most
hospitably entertained, while the crew of his ship
could hardly be restrained from accepting the candid
attentions, and provocative gestures, to which they
were subjected. One of the seamen was once enticed
into following or chasing a woman ; not many paces
from the scene he was seized, and completely stripped by
a number of men, whose sole interest in the affair was to
satisfy the curiosity of all the parties concerned as to the
complete details ot a uniform whiteness of skin : this
having been ascertained, he was released and in the
greatest fear rushed back to his ship.

They were a scrupulously cleanly people, bathing the
whole of their body regularly three times a day in
running water, however far they might be from the
sea or a river. After almost each mouthful of food,
they dipped their hands in water and washed out their
mouths. Their co\^ering, too, was spotlessly clean.
Men and women ate at separate tables and consumed
different food ; their appetites were distinctly healthy.
De la Harpe writes : “I have seen a man eat at a meal
three large fish, three bread fruits each larger than two
fists, tourteen or fifteen large bananas, followed by a
big dish of cooked bread fruit.”

To some forms of ailments, Tahitians applied friction
by rubbing the muscles of the limbs with the hands,
or they “ kneaded ” the patient much in the same
manner as present-day massage. For s^vellings or
wounds, the sufferer was placed on a pile of hot stones
strewn with fresh herbs and leaves, and covered up
until he was in the most profuse perspiration, when he
would plunge into the sea.

Should anyone be stricken by sickness, he was con-
sidered under the ban of the gods — ^he had become
obnoxious to them ; in other words, he was being

Society Islands

2iy

“ visited " for his sins. And the attention of his
friends and relations was directed towards these divini-
ties by offerings and addresses as well as by substantial
propitiations. Whatever herbal remedies the patient
might be given was not so much owing to their curative
properties, but as a medium of communion with the
august gods, who would answer their petitions and
convey relief.

The last resort adopted for the sick man’s recovery
was the offer of human sacrifices, not usually from
among their own tribe, but some prisoner or slave.
When all efforts proved futile, the gods w^ere first cursed,
and finally dismissed, being replaced by others. If the
new gods also proved a failure, the patient was left to
die a lingering death from inattention and starvation.
If, from the first, a case was considered hopeless, to
save useless trouble, and to put him out of his misery,
the sick man was usually murdered.

The king always abdicated on the birth of his first-
born son, who assumed at birth the honours of his
father ; this may have been an ingenious method of
avoiding any later dispute in regard to the heir. Queens
as well as kings appeared in public on men’s shoulders,
the bearers always being deemed sacred. When chiefs
who descended from the gods (those of royal blood)
walked abroad, the people stripped off their upper
garments as far as the waist.

There is every reason to suppose that this people had
a conception of a Supreme Being called Oro ; every
fabulous event, from theii* own origin to that of their
lands, began with the metaphor ’ It came to pass.'
To this one god they held an evening thanksgiving for
the blessing of Life. When human beings died, it was
believed that their souls escaped through the nostril.
They also held the belief that after a man died his body

2i8 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

was destroyed by worms, which ultimately grew into
swine ; hence hogs had souls, though of an inferior
kind, and each received a distinctive name by which
he was known. Some went further, and believed that
even flowers and plants, preferably those used as
medicinal herbs, were organized beings and possessed
souls.

Every supernatural act of creation, such as rain,
wind, thunder, disease, and every mysterious element
in Nature, or additional superstition, resolved itself into
a god. There were other malevolent gods who were
ever laying traps for the unwary. It was possible to
obtain the aid of one of these evil spirits by securing
him to guard over your property, which meant that it
became tahoo to touch it ; this was highly effective to
the owner.

In important affairs it was necessary to appeal to one
particular class of gods. The needful rites and cere-
monies were used to evoke that particular spirit, and
cannibalism was practised as being the most potent
both in regard to the properties of that particular food
as well as the message foretold by the priest — as judged
by the condition and position of the intestines. Pigs,
dogs, and fowls were used in the same way for decipher-
ing the message of the gods.

Apart from these primitive acts of cruelty, all
voyagers have admitted that the Tahitians were a
friendlil> disposed people. Their amusements consisted
chiefly in symbolic dancing in the public spaces and
wrestling matches in which both sexes took part.
Captain Bligh (who it will be remembered was in
command of the Bounty, and was cast adrift by the
mutineers on board that ship) says, that during his
visit to Tahiti the first act of the missionaries was to
destroy the wooden idols and household gods. When

Society Islands

219

asked by some natives, " If there is no eating, drinking,
or dancing in heaven, nor wearing of clothes, wherein
does its joyousness consist ? the reply seems scarcely
alluring : ** The joys of heaven are intellectual and
spiritual." The natives — evidently preferring more
material joys — ^begged Captain Bligh to bring out in his
next voyage a shipload of white women.

Bankes, the scientist of Captain Cook's staff, relates how
one Sunday morning divine service was held at the fort
that had been erected on shore, to which some Tahitian
chiefs and their wives were asked to come, for the
purpose of inviting them to ask questions on the various
ceremonies. The chiefs followed the service intently,
copying each act of kneeling and standing, for they felt
it was a serious ceremony ; but when the service was
ended, in spite of explanations being offered, no ques-
tions were asked.

Having witnessed this religious rite, the natives felt
that it would be only a befitting return of courtesy to
show its equivalent in their customs. And, according
to De la Harpe, they exhibited so realistic an illustration
of their marriage rites that nothing was left to the
imagination, yet without the smallest sense of immodesty
on their part.

These people were much astonished that when the
Spaniards visited them they did not bring them presents
of red feathers, as the English did from the Friendly
Islands, these being the fulfilment of their greatest
desires.

SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS

The interior and lowlands of South America were
peopled by a number of aborigines, divided into numer-
ous tribes, and sufficiently apart from one another to
speak different languages. Most of the territory occupied
by these Indians was a part of what is now Brazil ; in
various localities, their land merged into the many
states round the South American coast. With the
exception of a few settlements, they were mostly
nomads, and varied in colour from a dark to a very
pale bronze. The majority of both sexes were totally
unclad. Polygamy and polyandry were universal
customs among them all ; and every traveller agrees
that the women were usually of larger physique than
the men, and that both men and women had unusually
small hands and feet.

Their religion was apparently based on the same
instinct as that of all primitive races, commencing with
a fearsome respect for a forcible patriarchal leader ;
this naturally entailed a reverence both for his memory
and for the rites and customs he had instituted, and
was inculcated into their conscience in the form of
Ancestor worship.

The Indians in these parts were originally cannibals,
possibly because of the scarcity of animal food ; it also
being difficult to procure, owing to their not yet having
mastered the use of bows and arrows. When raiding
one another, only women and children under twelve
were spared ; the prisoners were eaten, as also those
who were killed. There was an added zest to some
of their feasts, in the belief that, by eating the flesh

South American Indians

221

of a brave enemy chief, they absorbed his strength, and
increased their own ferocity.

The CharruaSf near La Plata river, on which stands
Buenos Aires, never cut their hair, which was very long ;
w'omen wore theirs hanging down, while men tied up
and decorated theirs with upstanding white feathers.

They were uncommonly verminous, and thoroughly
enjoyed a feast of each other’s vermin.

\\^en a girl reached womanhood, three lines were
tattooed on her face ; one from the roots of the hair
on the forehead, extending to the tip of her nose ; the
other two extended towards her temples. The men
were ornamented by pieces of wood let into the lower
lip, neither sex ever deemed it necessary to wash their
bodies or their heads ; men went about as Nature had
fashioned them, never cultivated the soil, but lived upon
the results of the chase.

These Charruas had no games, nor dances, nor songs,
nor musical instruments ; they were an unemotional
race, and their mien was utterly taciturn ; their nearest
approach to a smile was a smirk. Neither did they
raise their voice ; rather than call to anyone a few'
paces off, they would walk up to him and speak. So
devoid of feeling were they, that they accepted death
without a murmur.

At this time, the tribe had no obligatory laws, nor
any chiefs in authority over them ; although, at night
sentries were posted outside their huts. Should, for
once, this people be stirred out of their apathy and
become so human as to quarrel, they gave one another
blows with their fists. When they became still more
human and a man desired to set up a home, without
any preliminary love-making he simply asked a girl to
marry him, and we hear that he was never refused.
Although polygamy was allowed no woman bad more

222

Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

than one husband ; and brothers and sisters never
married one another. Only the heads of families were
permitted to indulge in the native spirit called chicha,
which was obtained from wild honey and then allowed
to ferment.

Their burial place was in some chosen hill ; the deceased
man’s spears and belongings were also interred with
him, and should he be an adult, his nearest female
relations cut off the joint of their little finger ; at each
death this operation might then be repeated. De Azara
says that he never saw any woman with a complete
little finger. They also gave themselves deep gashes
with the knife or spear of the deceased before it was
entombed with him. No husband or father took any
account of the death of their womenfolk.

If, however, the father of an adult man died, the son
retired to his hut for two days, at the end of which
time, towards night, he obtained the assistance of
another man who, gripping hold of his flesh, pierced it
with a pointed stick about four inches long, and there
it remained like a skewer. Thus the whole of the
moumei’s arm was skewered up to the shoulder, and
in this tortured condition he retired to the woods. With
a pointed stick in his hands he contrived to dig a hole,
in which he stood up all night to his chest. The follow-
ing morning, he went to a hut used for the purpose,
removed the skewer, and fasted for two days ; after
which children and others brought him food in small
quantities. This lasted for some ten or twelve days, at
the end of which time he rejoined his tribe. Some pierced
the flesh of their legs in a similar way, with large fish
bones, as well as piercing their arms up to the elbow.

Although this self-mutilation was optional, it was
very rarely omitted ; its main object being, apparently,
a periodical t^^t of endurance, which evidently did not

South American Indians 223

conduce to shortening of life, for we are told that these
people lived to a very old age. A shirker was regarded
as a pitiable and contemptible creature.

Children remained with their parents only until they
were weaned, after which they were put in charge of
an uncle, cousin, or brother, and were no longer recog-
nized by their parents. On their part, children did not
mourn at the death of their father, but of their adopted
father. By this custom, it would seem that all married
persons brought up only adopted children.

The Guaranys were a race who lived on the borders
of great forests ; their principal food was honey, wild
fruits, and monkeys, and the inhabitants were only able
to count up to four.

The natives of Paraguay, who were partly civilized
Indians, spent most of their time from a week old, on
horse-back, so it is not surprising to hear that they
walked with difficulty. Since the advent of mission-
aries, they were so imbued with the desirability of being
ii.teiTed in consecrated ground, that if a man died, who
lived at some distance from a church, after removing
his flesh his dry bones were carried to the cemetery.
Should the man live only a day’s ride from the place
of interment, his corpse was dressed up in his ordinary
attire, he was balanced on a horse’s saddle, his feet
placed in the stirrups, and in this fashion he was taken
to the priest.

If a man entered the church to be married, he wore
his best and only clothes, but once the ceremony was
performed he removed these unnecessary impediments
and presented them to the priest. In ordinary condi-
tions, should it rain, he removed what covering he wore,
and placed it under shelter, for the logical reason that
when the rain ceased his body would dry much quicker
than the material of bis clothing.

224 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

If anyone felt indisposed he would consult the first
casual passer-by, and immediately sample any suggested
remedy. If this remedy failed he applied to a ‘ ' medicine ' ’
man, one of whom was always to be found. But the
“ medicine ” man’s only place of consultation was, on the
church’s feast days, on the steps of the chapel door.
Nor did he see his patient, for he diagnosed the nature
of the malady according to the communications made
by the patient, as to whether his malady was caused
by heat or cold, and prescribed accordingly.

A tribe called Tupys, also known as Caribs, acquired
some fabulous notoriety ; those living in their vicinity
declared that they were absolutely wild, never sleeping
in the same spot on two successive nights ; that instead
of talking they barked like dogs, and their lower lip was
split into two divisions, for what purpose is not men-
tioned. ^Vhen taken prisoners they made no attempt
at escape, but silently — ceased to live. We further
hear, that their dead were buried in a shallow grave
and covered with leaves, on which were placed their
bows and arrows ; while four dogs, with their feet tied,
were placed at the corner of the grave. The men of
the Tupys shaved their hair like a sort of tonsure ; and
both sexes pulled out their eyebrows and eyelashes.

WTien the Spaniards invaded America, the women
abandoned themselves with such licentious fury to the
invaders, that it was a strong factor in favour of the
enemy. The Spaniards on their side adopted the
means, for the subjugation of the native Indians, by
importing numerous Spaniards into South America, to
wed with the Indian women: all children of these
unions were considered legitimate Spanish citizens.

Guinea comprised all the territory to the north east
portion of the South American Continent, where the
great rivers Orinoco and Amazon flow. The natives of

South American Indians 225

these districts, though consisting of a number of different
tribes, were called Guanians and Carihs. At the period
of Sir Walter Raleigh’s visit, in 1550, Manoa was the
principal town, and also the “ El Dorado ” of the
Spaniards. Guinea was also the home of the reputed
tribe of the Amazons, the first authority for whose
existence being Christopher Colombus. These Amazons
are said to have lived on the western side of a large
lake, in a country called Woruisamoeos ; their abode
was called the Mansion of the Sun,” because ** that
orb sank into it.” We learn also that the inhabitants
cultivated their own ground, shot with bows and
arrows, and used the cura or blow-pipe — a long tube
through which poisonous darts were projected.

Sir Walter Raleigh relates that the women in the
environment of Guinea doe accompany with men but
once in a yere, and for the time of one moneth, which
I gather by their relation, to be in April : and that time
all kings of the borders assemble, and queenes of
the Amazones ; and after the queenes have chosen, the
rest cast lots for their Valentines. This one moneth
they feast, dance, and driiike of their wines in abund-
ance ; and the Moone being done, they all depart to their
owne provinces.” Should any offspring result from this
month of free love, a male infant would be returned
to the father ; but the female children were kept and
reared by their mothers, “If in these warres they
tooke any prisoners that they used to accompany
with those also at what time soever, but in the end
for certeine they put them to death.” Raleigh adds
there are records of similar women both in Africa and
in Asia.

In the Amazon country was found a kind of green
stone perforated, and of cylindrical shape, which was
used to cure diseases of the liver and other maladies.

15

226 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

These stones were also used as amulets. Some Indian
tribes wore these stones as a sign of chieftainship and
noble lineage, their grade and nobility being recog-
nized according to the length of the cylinder, and the
depth of the perforation. A similar green stone was
found in New Zealand, and used for the same purpose
as the Guanians used them.

Sir Walter Raleigh greatly admired some of the
women, and in describing the wife of a Casique, he
says, Shee was of good stature, with black eyes, fat of
body, of an excellent countenance, her haire almost as
long as her selfe, tied up againe in pretie knots ... I
have seene a Lady in England so like to her, as but for
the difference of colour, I would have swome might
have bene the same.” Other writers say, that in several
instances they have seen hair which touched the ground ;
the women anointed it daily with oil, obtained from
the Carapa nut. Among some tribes the females wore
their hair short, and the men’s was in long tresses or
queues ; even the hair of the most aged men seldom
turned white from age.

Adventurers into this land of “ El Dorado ” (Manoa)
and Amazons, spoke of an astounding race of people,
whose heads appeare not above their shoulders ”...
” they are called Ewaipanoma : “ they are reported to
have their eyes in their shoulders, and their mouthes
in the middle of their breasts, and that a long traine
of haire groweth backward betweene their shoulders.”
The belief in this people seems to have been common
among the natives, and some English merchants assured
Raleigh that they had seen many of them.

The Guanians had little use for fowls ; neither eating
their flesh nor their eggs, they regarded them rather
in the light of curiosities : but for cocks they had a
certain utility, seeing that by their crowing they were

South American Indians 227

able to judge the hours of the night. These people
were immoderately fond of drinking bouts. At their
solemn feasts, at which the Emperor, his governors, etc.,
were present, their preparations for pledging him were
somewhat peculiar : stripped naked, and their bodies
anointed al over with a kind of white balsamum
of which there is great plenty, and yet very deare
amongst them, and it is of all other the most precious,
whereof wee have had good experience.” When they
had been thoroughly smeared by this oil, the Emperor’s
servants, ''having prepared golde made into fine
powder, blow it thorow hollow canes upon their naked
bodies, untill they be all shining from the foot to the
head: and in this sort they sit drinking by twenties,
and hundreds, and continue in dnmkennesse sometimes
sixe or seven dayes together.”

The burying-grounds of all Indians were regarded as
very sacred ; with the dead they buried the possessions
they most valued when living. The Orenoqueponi had
apparently scant appreciation for their spouses, for we
Lear they " bury not their wives with them, but their
jewels, hoping to injoy them againe.” On the other
hand, the Arwacas allowed their spouses to participate
in the delicacies which the corpse provided, for they
" dry the bones of their Lordes into powder, and their
wives and friends drinke them in powder.”

On the south side of the Orinoco, both women and
children were sold to the Spaniards ; men sold their
sons and daughters, or their brothers and sisters. This
custom existed also among the Guaniaiis and Carihs,

The Waraus were most famous boat builders, and
built canoes for nearly all the colony of Demerara ;
these were sometimes as long as fifty feet, and five or
six feet broad, either made of cedar or a tree called
Basci. These people were regarded as excessively dirty,

228 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

for although their bodies were smeared with oil, they
seldom troubled to wash them. They mourned their
dead with great lamentations, usually burying them
beneath the hut in which they had lived. Also, the
chief mourner slung his hammock over the grave, and
did not quit it for several days.

The Puelches inhabited the Southern Pampas of
South America ; these people were great hunters of
ostriches. The Pampas, too, was the region of large
troupes of wild horses and wild cattle, which provided
the inhabitants with food. Formerly, their only weapon
was a sharp pointed stick, which they converted into
a long spear. They also used the hola, which consisted
of three round stones, tied together with thongs ; when
thrown at a running animal, it^ entangled its legs,
causing it to fall.

The present history of the natives of the Amazon,
and Orinoco, is graphically described by Schomburgh
as the finale of a tragic drama : a race of men wasting
away, most of them being seized as slaves ; finally
peopled by descendants of Africa, introduced into the
country by the Dutch in 1621.

SUMATRA

In this island, of which Acheen is the principal town,
the land was ploughed with buffaloes which were very
numerous, as were elephants, horses, wild hogs, etc.
Houses were raised on posts, and built about eight feet
from the ground ; they were not luxuriant dwellings,
for the roofs and walls were covered only by mats of a
very inferior quality.

When any man came into the presence of the king,
he was obliged to remove his shoes and stockings, hold
his hands above his head, and say dowlat, after which
he might sit cross-legged in his majesty’s presence. The
will of the king was paramount, and those who encoun-
tered his displeasure, might either have their hands and
fret lopped off and be banished to an island called
Pulo Wey, or suffer death by being impaled or trodden
to death by elephants.

About 1598 we are introduced to King Sultan Aladin.
He had been a fisherman in his youth, but through
his discretion and bravery, had eventually raised him-
self into the position of king. At this date he was said
to be "an hundred years old, yet is a lively man,
exceedingly gross and fat.” Alas ! for King Sultan
Aladin ! His years of past discretion apparently evapor-
ated in his old age, for we hear that he ate and drank
all day, " there being no end of banqueting from morn-
ing till night ” ; and when ready to burst he ate areka
hetuia (areka being the nut, and betel the leaf in which
it is wrapped) ; these ingredients had the effect of still
further whetting the appetite, and the king was able
once again to return to his banqueting. This betel

230 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

nut blackened the teeth ; hence, the blacker the teeth,
the greater admiration did the chewer evoke.

The king had three wives and a number of concubines ;
his women, we are told, were his chief counsellors. His
strongest force of protection on land were the elephants ;
but he had also about a hundred galleys, some so large
that they could carry 400 men ; these galleys were very
low and narrow, open, without decks or upper works.
Instead of oars, paddles about four feet long were used,
made in the shape of shovels ; the king’s admiral was
a woman.

The religion of these people was Mahometan. They
claimed to be descended from Abraham, through Ishmael,
the son of Hagar. Each family or tribe had its own
place of burial, which was in the fields ; they were
laid to rest with their heads towards Mecca, with a
curiously carved stone at the head and also at the feet.
The kings, it is said, had a piece of gold at their head,
and one at their feet, wondrously embossed and wrought,
each weighing 500 pounds.

Once a year a singular observance was held. The
king and his nobles mounted on elephants, who draped
with silk and satin and cloth of gold, formed a pro-
cession to visit the Mosque, for the purpose of seeing
if the Messias had yet arrived. The most richly
adorned elephant was led ; it had a little golden castle
on its back, and was intended for the use of the Messias.
On another elephant, which had on it also a little castle,
sat the king alone. Some of the mounted nobles carried
golden crescents, streamers, banners, ensigns; while
drums, trumpets, and other instruments of music formed
part of this gorgeous cavalcade. On arriving at the
Mosque, the nobles looked into it with great solemnity ;
and finding the Messias had not yet arrived, the king
dismounted from his elephant, and rode home on the

Sumatra

231

one prepared for their Prophet. The day was concluded
with banqueting and games.

At a later date, about 1621, we hear the Sumatrans
were great mathematicians, and excelled in poetry set
to music.

The people had such a reverence for their king, that
in the case of lese-majesty, a brother would accuse a
brother, or a son accuse his ^ther ; on being reproached
for this excess of conscience, their reply was ingenious
— ^that God was far away, but the king was near at hand.
The usual form of punishment was the bastinado. If
a man accused another of seeing his wife in her bath,
the culprit was sentenced to thirty strokes of a rattan ;
bat he bargained with the administrators of punishment
as to the amount of the bribe, and finally walked off
untouched. This satisfied both parties.

The same form of bribery was recognized in all cases.
When, for instance, a man might have been sentenced
to having his nose, or ears, or feet, cut off, he stipulated
whether the operation should be performed by one
blow, or protracted blows, such as one, two, three, or
four slashes. This cruel performance was part of the
king’s daily entertainment. Since it was agreed that
every man is frail and bound to commit some misdeed
sooner or later, it was no disgrace to see men without
a nose or an ear, etc.

Elephants were attached to the royal household, and
they were even taught to salute his majesty ; or, when
passing his palace, they bent their knees and raised
their trunks three times. The king sequestered all the
property of a subject who died without a male heir.
Those having daughters could marry them during his
life ; but if their father died before his daughters were
established, they belonged to the king.

TASMANIA (Van Diemen* s Land)

Tasman, the leader of an expedition sent by Van
Diemen, the Governor of the Dutch East Indies, dis-
covered Tasmania in 1642. The inhabitants have been
described as a simple people, totally devoid of clothing
except a wallaby (kangaroo skin), conveniently attached
to any part of the body where most required. Their
only shelter was under the bark of trees. Armed with
spears, their food was anything from grubs, truffles
found in the grounds, or opossums ; but after the
invasion of the whites, they took every advantage of
straying sheep.

It was the introduction of this diet, which practically
led to their undoing ; for, to preserve the industry of
sheep breeding, it was found necessary by the white
population, systematically to drive into one spot the
whole native population, and to confine them to one
of the islands off the south-east coast of Tasmania.

As seems to have been the case with all aboriginal
people, women were not taken into account at feeding
time, although they cooked the food, and with the dogs
shared the remnants.

The only ornaments decorating their dress was the
bone, or bones, of a deceased friend, who may or may
not have been stowed away in their anatomy ; canni-
balism being a state of periodic necessity.

These people were ignorant of the art of boiling —
everything was roasted whole just as it fell dead,
whether it was wallabins, opossums, or rats ; the food
was ready for eating when it burst.

A ]\Ian oi- \'an Dikmkn's I .and.

Tasmania (Van Diemen's Land) 233

The matter of sheep stealing led to much savagery
on the part of both whites and blacks. To explain the
law of murder to the natives, a nmnber of notices
were hung up, wherever they might be seen. These
notices showed the picture of a black man spearing a
white settler ; accompanying it was a gallows, whereon
a black man was hanging. On the same poster was a
white man shooting a black, in consequence of which
the white man was hanged. This form of persuasion
was, however, quite ineffective.

TURKEY

There seems no reason to doubt that the Ottoman
Turks came originally from Turkistan, consequently
they are closely allied to the Mongols. Towards the
close of the fourteenth century we hear, according to
Victor During, of their descending from the ‘‘Altai/*
or “ Golden Mountains,** raiding India, Persia, Syria,
and Asia Minor. Having met with repulse in 1422,
they finally succeeded in capturing Constantinople in
1453 I thus was laid the foundation of the great Ottoman
Empire in Europe.

The Seraglio, or palace of the Grand Signor, where
he kept his Court at Constantinople, consisted of a
triangle about three “ Italian miles ** round, at the end
of the promontory Chrysorecas. The buildings reached
back to the top of the hill, and from these were gardens
leading down to the sea. The Palace had high and
substantial walls, upon which were built watch towers.
Some of its many gates opened on to the sea, others
into the city ; the principal gate of all opened into
the city, and was guarded by a number of white
eunuchs. Inside, were black eunuchs ; the chief of these
was called Kislar aga. He was a person of immense
importance and authority, both inside and outside the
harem.

At the Seraglio, youth was trained for some of the
highest positions at Court. Here, also, at the Harem,
lived the concubines of the Grand Signor. These con-
sisted of a number of young and exceedingly beautiful
women, many of whom had been sent as presents

Turkey

235

from the provinces and the Greek islands, most of
them being children of Christian parents. After their
arrival, they were placed under the care of some old
ladies, who undertook that their charges were instructed
in music, dancing, singing, embroidery, etc. Each had
her own bed. Between every fifth slept a governess,
the principal one being called Katon Kiaga. There
being no servant, each new arrival had to wait on the
one who preceded her.

Sometimes these young girls numbered several hun-
dreds, according to the pleasure of the reigning Sultan.
They were never permitted to go abroad unless he
wished to travel to different places, when black eunuchs
escorted them to the boats, which were provided with
lattices and curtains.

When they journeyed by land, they travelled in closed
chariots ; at various points signals were given, so that
none should approach until they had passed. Among
the Sultan's attendants was a company of mutes, who
were special adepts at conversing rapidly by signs and
gestures. There were, also, some dwarfs for his special
diversion.

Even in the garden, the little ladies were provided
with a guard of black eunuchs, the premises having
been previously searched. Should anyone have foimd
his way into this virginal paradise, purposely or by
accident, his head was immediately cut off, and placed
at the feet of the Sultan, who presented the guard
with a generous reward. The garden, when the Sultan
happened to be walking there, was the supreme oppor-
tunity of the little ladies, to win his favour by their
songs and dancing. Lady Wortley Montagu (1717) in
her visit to the palace of the Beautiful Fatima, wife of
Kiahya-bey, at Adrianople, vividly and characteristically
describes the music and dancing of Fatima's maidens :

236 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

The tunes so soft ! — ^The motions so languishing ! —
half falling back, and then recovering themselves in so
artful a manner, that I am very positive, the coldest and
most rigid prude on earth could not have looked upon
them without thinking of something not to he spoke of”

And there were occasions when the Grand Signor
permitted himself to be seduced by one of those virgin
nymphs — on solemn festivals, unusual rejoicings, or
the arrival of some good news. In this case he would
visit the apartment reserved for the women, and
announce his choice to their governess.

The favoured nymph would then be bathed and per-
fumed, dressed in gorgeous apparel, and conducted by
her companions, with music and singing to the Sultan’s
room. Here she would be left awhile ; then, at a given
signal from the Sultan, her governess and companions
returned, and escorted her back to the women’s apart-
ment, with every sign of rejoicing. If she in the full-
ness of time brought forth a son, the name of Hasseky
would be given her : and, if he became Sultan she
would in addition, have a Court of her own, and a
special guard of honour.

The Turkish laws forbade women to unveil to any
man but the husband or relations within a certain
degree. A Turk could, therefore, only judge of the looks
of his future wife from the reports of his own women,
or some person by whom she had been seen. A story
is told, that a newly wed husband found his wife so
bereft of good looks that, when two or three days later
she consulted him as to which of her relations should
be priviledged to enter her harem, replied with resigna-
tion, ‘‘ I give you my free permission, my dear, to
show yourself to all the men in the world, except to
myself.”

In Mahomet’s teachings, a man may marry a Christian

T urkey

237

or a Jewish woman, but her children must espouse the
religion of his forefathers. He is prohibited from marry-
ing an infidel. “ I withdraw my foot,’* says the Prophet,
" and turn away my face from a society in which the
faithful are mixed with the ungodly.” Under no cir-
cumstances might a woman marry outside her own
religion. There was another matter on which Mahomet
was adamant — that the unmarried woman died in a
state of reprobation. For this reason, if a woman
preferred to remain unshackled earlier in life, she might,
when she believed death to be approaching, try to induce
some man to espouse her.

Marriage differed from concubinage only in regard to
the dowry, which gave the wife exclusive claim to the
caresses of her husband, from Thursday at sunset to
Friday at the same hour, which day was the Turkish
Sabbath. If the husband complied with this family
duty^ any irregularities at other times of a Don Juan
nature, were not considered of much account.

Any child born in his house was considered equally
legitimate ; yet a husband had the right to kill an
unfaithful wife, as well as to confiscate all her money.
He might also repudiate her if she was childless. Should
her husband wish her to return to him, before this was
possible, she would have to marry another man, and
give him instant cause to divorce her.

A wife had also a remedy for her grievances : lack
of due attention, parsimony on the part of her husband,
or her bodily fear of him. The Chevalier d’Arvieux
tells of the curious formula she would, for this purpose,
go through in the presence of the Cadi, or Magistrate ;
taking off her shoe, and turning it upside down. Her
appeal would then be heard, and if she persisted in
her accusations she forfeited her marriage dowry, but
was free to re-marry. If, on the contrary, it was the

238 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

husband who sought a divorce, he was obliged to give
her her marriage fortune.

At the civil contract of marriage, as at the time of
our Henry VIII, neither the bride nor any of her friends
were present ; but proxies, consisting of the Cadi of
the district, the priest, and a few of her nearest relations.
An important matter had to be arranged at this con-
tract — the settlement of the bride's dowry, lest she
became a widow or was divorced, for in Turkey it was
customary for the bridegroom to provide the marriage
portion. Arrangements were also made at this time, in
regard to any money or land of which the bride might
be possessed. These matters having been settled, the
bridegroom’s friends conveyed her with much ceremony
to her husband’s house, who undressed and put her to bed.

It was well, too, to be instructed in these matters of
etiquette ; it would, for example, have been unpardon-
able for one gentleman to ask a Mahometan regarding
the health of his wife. In the same way, the Turks
ridiculed uncovering the head as a token of respect.
Their mode of saluting an equal, was to lay their hand
on their heart ; when addressing a superior, they placed
their right hand first to the mouth, then to th? forehead ;
if he was a man of rank and distinction, they bent
profoundly, extending their right hand first towards
the ground, then raising it to their mouth and forehead.
In the presence of a sovereign, before raising the hand
to the head, they first touched the ground. It was
customary, when visiting important inhabitants, to
arrive with some offering, otherwise they would feel
defrauded of a tribute which their position demanded,
and it would be taken as somewhat of an affront ; even
when visiting inferior people one would always arrive
with a flower, an orange, or some small token of
courtesy.

Turkey

239

No Mahometan would rise to salute an infidel, what-
ever his position might be. A visitor of importance
would be received at the foot of the stairs by two
officers of the household, who supported him under the
arm, until he reached the entrance of the visiting cham-
ber, where the host advanced to welcome him. When
he took his leave, the master of the house preceded
him to the door of the apartment, walking a few paces
in advance.

Baron de Tott had the curiosity to examine the bed
laid out for him, when on a visit to a man he calls a
“ Dragoman.** He found it consisted of fifteen mattresses
of quilted cotton, each about three inches thick, covered
by a sheet of Indian linen ; over this was a coverlet
of green satin. There were two large pillows of crimson
satin. After dinner, their amusement he tells us, con-
sisted of swinging. He adds, Our gentlemen with long
beards took part in the frolic *' ; and he continues that,
“ the first care of an Ottoman prince, when he comes
to the throne, is to let his beard grow,’* this being
apparently a symbol of wisdom.

But such luxuries as Baron de Tott writes of, were
not commonly to be met with ; for there were no
apartments in a Turkish house, says Thornton, used
exclusively as bedrooms. The most usual place for
sleeping was on a light mattress, which had been placed
on a sopha in the centre of the room , or, should the
temperature be sufficiently warm, in the gallery. Men
and women were never fully undressed, but wore bed-
gowns which, apart from their inferior quality, closely
resembled the under-garments they wore in the day.

The “ bed-furniture ** consisted of a quilted coverlet,
a sheet, and a pillow, all of which were placed in a
press during the day, with which every room was pro-
vided. The sopha extended round three sides of the

240 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

apartment, on a frame a few inches from the ground.
The floor was covered by carpets or Egyptian matting,
with the exception of a small part by the entrance,
where the papuches or slippers were taken off. Chairs
and tables were articles almost unknown.

Dinner was served on a large copper circular dish,
placed on a low stool at the corner of the sopha. The
guests sat round cross-legged ; the younger and less
distinguished sat on cushions placed on the floor. No
table-cloth was used, but a long napkin was spread over
the knees of the guests. Sometimes as many as twenty
or thirty dishes succeeded one another with ^uch
rapidity that it gave little chance for selection. Plates,
knives and forks were dispensed with, each one helping
himself with his fingers.

It was at the bagnio, or baths, that the Turkish
women heard all the news and scandals of the town.
To these bagnios they journeyed in their covered coaches
once a week, remaining in the water some five or six
hours. Their other amusements were playing chess,
watching the acting of Puppet-shows, and consuming
endless sweetmeats.

There was a peremptory law which forbade aliens
wearing the distinctive colours of the Turks. Greeks,
Armenians, and Jews, were punished for being clothed
in colours forbidden to these races, and only Turks
were allowed to wear yellow slippers. In regard to the
Turkish citizens, laws prescribed the form of the dress,
the height of the women's head-dress, and the kind of
furs to be worn by each rank.

Surma was used by both men and women to beautify
the eyes. It is described as “ a black impalpable Powder,
and so volatile as to spread itself like a fine Down upon
a small brass wire, fixed in the Cork of the Bottle." The
method of using it was to withdraw the Wire, without

Turkey

241

letting it touch the neck of the bottle, and to apply the
extremity to the inner comer of the eye, upon which
the closed eyelids rested, then drawing it gently towards
the temples. This left two black streaks between the
eyelids which, the Turks considered, gave an air of
tenderness. They also used a kind of paint called
Sulima, to whiten the skin, and to render it shiny.

As in most Oriental countries, the greatest desire of
a Turkish lady was to bear children. They had. Lady
Mary Montagu assures us, a special horror of seeming
to have reached an age when further offspring are not
to be counted upon. She frequently heard them say
they hoped “ God will be so merciful as to send them
two this time” When expostulated with by Lady M.
S. Montagu on the expense of supporting so large a
family, she says their reply was invariably that “ the
plague will certainly kill half of them."

The law did not track down a murderer, that being
the duty ot his nearest of kin ; not infrequently a
certain payment of money, compensated the sorrowing
relatives. Yet the lust of cruelty was strong among
these people, for when the Ulemats (a class of lawyers)
had offended, their goods could never be seized, nor
could they be put to death, '' but by being bruised in
a mortar."

The Turks were great believers in amulets ; garlic
was much used as a talisman. The Sultan's barge of
state was preserved from harm by " a head of garlick,"
as was a heap of firewood in the court-yard of the
public baths ; w^hile a string of blue beads suspended
round the chest of a rider, kept him safe from any
malignant design of the populace. Mothers were more
inclined to believe in the efficacy of spitting in their
children's face, to preserve it from the admiration and
envy of other women less favoured.

242 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

The Turks and Moors hung around their children's
necks the figure of an open hand, usually the right,
and also painted it upon their ships and houses, as a
charm against the evil eye." With them five was an
unlucky number. Many of them carried some para-
graph of their Koran, which they placed upon their
breasts, or sewed under their caps, to ward off mis-
fortune. They even hung these amulets round the
necks of their cattle, horses, and other beasts.

The period of mourning was regulated by law and
custom, and was a short one, mourning being believed
to be a sign of rebellion against providence. A con-
cession was, however, made to mothers — that they might
mourn over the death of a beloved son for three days.

The burying-fields in Turkey were of immense size,
extending for many miles. Never was a stone, which
was at the same time a monument, allowed to be dis-
placed. By each stone was erected a pillar, on the
top of which was a carved turbant, showing by their
shape the profession of the dead man. Ladies had a
simple pillar devoid of all ornament, with the exception
of those who had died unwed ; on the top of these was
a rose. Between some of these tombs was placed a
chest of ornamented stone, filled with earth ; in this
were planted herbs and aromatic flowers. They were
carefully cultivated by the females of the family, who
assembled for that purpose in groupes."

Mingrelia, on the borders of the Black Sea, was under
the dominion of Turkey. In his Travels in Turkey
and Persia, in 1686, Sir John Chardin tells us that the
Mingielian were '' a People altogether Savage. . . .
They live in Wooden Huts and go almost naked.
. . . The inhabitants make slaves one of another, and
sell one another to the Turks and Tartars.” He adds
further : the Men are very well shap’d, and the

Turkey

243

Women very handsome . . . with an Aspect and
Proportion much to be admir’d. Besides, they have
those Obliging Glances, that win the Affections of all
that behold ’em. . . . They that are not so handsome,
or in years, paint abominably. Colouring their Eyebrows,
their Cheeks, Forehead, Noses and Chins ; but the
rest only paint their Eyebrows.”

The same authority adds, that these people were
“ Extremely Civil, full of Ceremonies and Compliments ;
but otherwise the wickedest Women in the World,
Haught}^ Furious, Perfidious, Deceitful, Cruel and
Impudent, So that there is no sort of Wickedness which
they will not put in Execution, to procure Lovers,
preserve their Affection, or else to destroy ’em. . . ,
The Men are endu’d with all these Mischievous Qualities
with some Addition.”

The Mingrelian men must have looked fearsome beings,
for we hear further that they shaved the top of their
hr'ads in a circle, leaving the remaining hair to grow
down to their eyes, and clipping it round at even length.
“ They never have but one Shirt . . . which lasts ’em
at least a Year : in all which time they never wash ’em
above Three times : only Once or Twice a Week they
shake ’em over the Fire, for the Vermin to drop off,
with which they are mightily haunted. . . . which is
the reason that the Mingrelian Ladies carry a very bad
scent about ’em. I always accoasted ’em, exlreamly
taken with their Beauty ; but I had not been a Minute
in their Company, but the Rank Whiffs from their Skins
quite stifl’d all my Amorous Thoughts.”

Their sense of morality seems to have been distinctly
depraved, for the same traveller relates how a certain
man courted and obtained the good will of a Mingrelian
Lady as his bride who, according to the custom, he
would have to purchase ; but not possessing the neces-

244 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

sary wherewithal, he planned a coup. This ''coup ” is
thus described by our friend Chardin : " To that purpose
he invited Twelve Priests to his House to hear a Solemn
Mass . . . upon which the Priests went very Chearfully.
. . . The Gentleman received ’em very courteously,
caused ’em to say Mass, and to offer an Ox . . . But
after he had made ’em to take a Hearty Cup, he caus’d
his Servants to seize ’em. Bind ’em, Shave their Heads
and their Beards, and the Night following carry’d ’em
to a Turkish Vessel, where he sold ’em for Household
Goods, and other Necessaries, but finding he had not
yet enough to pay for his Mistress, and his Nuptuals,
this Tyger went and fetch’d his own Wife, and sold her
to the same Vessel.”

The Mingrelians had not, in spite of having six bishops
in their coimtry, the smallest conception of any form
of faith in their religion : their chief occupation was a
continual round of feasting and banqueting and their
revenue was derived from the sale of women and children
into slavery to the Turks. For centuries this country had
been the principal source of slaves imported into Turkey.

There being few churches with bells, the people were
called together by knocking a board with a big stick.
They also worshipped idols, to which they paid much
reverence, clothing them with fine raiment, and decorating
them with jewels. Each boasted to the idol his exploits
and deeds of valour.

When a woman lost her husband, “ she rends her
Cloaths, strips herself naked to the Waste, tears her
Hair, and with her Nails claws off the Flesh and Skin
from her Body and Face . . . she crys, yells, gnashes
her Teeth, foams at Mouth like a Woman mad or
possess’d. . . . The men tear their Cloaths, thump
their Breasts, and shave their Heads and Beards.”
They have, says Jean B. Tavenier (1639), ^ dislike to

Turkey

245

the colour blue ; they will not even touch it, because
the Jews are said to have used indigo, to defile the water
of Jordan.

^ If a married woman had several lovers, and it hap-
pened that her husband caught them unawares, he
ignored them, no reference being made to the occur-
rence. For the more lovers a woman possessed, the
more was it to her credit, being considered a proof
that she was still beautiful enough to be desired — indeed
it was a reproach if she had no gallants. Should the
woman surprise her husband in an intrigue, she might
or she might not take exception to the delicate situation.
Any incompatibility of disposition was settled by the
local chief, who promptly sold one or other as a slave.

The Georgians, who were also under the supremacy
of Turkey, had a custom of building their churches upon
high mountains, in remote and almost inaccessible
places. These churches were not used and were allowed
to fall into decay, apparently as a form of offering or
atonement for their sins.

These people sometimes affianced their children when
mere infants, the object being to safeguard them from
becoming concubines to their lords and masters, but
this we hear, is only to be understood of those who have
a larger share of decency than the generality of them.’*

It was customary in Georgia and Mingrelia, as in some
other countries, for people before commencing a feast
to go into the open, and with eyes turned towards
heaven, to pour a cup of wine on the ground.

Sir John Chardin gives us several prescriptions of
Georgian remedies : For Inward Pains of what sort
so ever. Take Portions of Mummy ; ” For all sorts of
Falls, Bruises and Hurts Take Mummy in Drink, wrap
up the Patient in a Cows Hide, and let him blood ...”
“ Against a Cough, make use of the Root of the Herb
call’d Hounds-Tongue or Dogs-Tongue.”

AUTHORITIES QUOTED AND CONSULTED

Alva Ixtlilxochitl, Fernando de : ** Hist. Chichi-

meques/' part i, pp. 266, 268, 269, 290 ; part ii, 349,
350, 353 ; trans. H. Ternaux-Compans (1840).

Anonymous : “A Late Voyage to Holland written by an
English Gentleman.** London. Printed by John
Humphreys (1691).

DE Azara, Don Felix : tr., 1781-1801 ; pp. 9, ii, 25, 33,
71, 119, 307.

Bligh, Captain : “ A Voyage to the South Sea,’* pp. 97,
129

Borwick, James, F.R.G.S. : “ The Last of the Tasman-
ians,” pp. I, 5, 284-5 1 ** The Daily Life of the
Tasmanians ** (1870), pp. 17, 27.

Bowditch, Charles (tr. Selen) : pp. 248, 250, 251, 268,
279, 308, 347» 349. 358.

Brewster, A. B. : ” The Hill Tribes of Fiji,” pp. 194, 197.

Border, Samuel : ” Oriental Customs ** (1808), vol. i, pp. 77,
98, 143, 202, 321-2, 345, 366 ; vol. ii, pp. 9, 47, 62, 76,
184, 228, 308, 370.

Campbell, Archibald : ” Voyage Round the World,”

1806-12, pp. 142, 179, 181 (1816).

Carpini, Pian de : quoted from Hakluyt Soc. hi, pp. 74,
109, 112, 169, 193 (i8i6). Printed by Hakluyt (1598)
“Texts and Versions,” pp. 109, iii, 189-90, 196.

Catlin, George : ” The North American Indians,” vol. i,

‘ pp. 6, 31, 36, 42. 51, 85, 93, 107, 126, 169, 230 (1876).

Chantreau : ” Voyage en Russie,” tr. by C., 1788-9, p.
141 (1794)-

Chardin, Sir John : ” Travels,” 1686 : Turkey, pp. 74,
87, 234 ; Persia, pp. 260, 263 ; Armenia, pp. 247,
504 ; Mingrelia, pp. 76, 84.

Churchill’s ” Voyages IV,” 1745 : (Philippines), pp. 418,
427, 428, 429, 441, quoting Gemelli-Carei. “ Voyage
du Tour du Monde,” tr. 1698 (Mexico), vol. i, pp. 46,
5b, 58. 59, 66, 69, 121, 184, 200, 205, 212-14, 315, 317,
482, 483, 490, 491.

Authorities Quoted and Consulted 247

Clarke, Dr. E. D. : “Travels through Russia” (1800),
voL i, pp. 46, 56, 58, 59, 66, 69, 121, 184, 200, 205,
212-14, 315, 317.

CocKRANE, John Douglas : “ Pedestrian Journey through
Russia,” pp. 331, 358 (1825).

CoNDER, JosiAH I “ The Modern Traveller ” (1830), pp. 51,
217, 219.

Cook, Captain : Last Voyage, 1778, pp. i3(>“7, 296, ^00,

30-2. 307. 3i4» 319. 324-

Crantz, David : “ Hist, of Greenland,” tr., vol. i, pp. 149,
162, 217 (1820).

Eden, Richard, 1555 : quoting Hakluyt, xii, p. 224-5.
Ellis, William: “Tour through Hawaii” (1826), pp.
22, 23, 40, 407, 469 ; “ Polynesian Researches ”

(1886), vol. i, p. 129.

Francklin, William : “ Tour from Bengal to Persia,”
1786-7, quoted Pinkerton^s Travels and Voyages ix»
pp. 250-1.

pRANKOWski, Dr. Eugenjusy (Poland).
de Grabowska, Alexandra (Poland).

Hakluyt Soc. : “ Principal Navigations,” x, quoting Sir
Walter Raleigh.

Hakluyt Soc., pp. 107, iii, 189, 100, 194, 196-7*

Quoting the Journey of William de Rubruck,
1253, tr. 1903 ; and Voyage of Pian de Carpini,
1446, tr.

(18) Soc. (printed for). Tr. from Isaac de la Peyrdre.

“ Hist, du Greenland,” pp. 206, 215, 225-6.

(50) Soc. (printed for). Zeno, Nicolo and Antonio.

“ Voyages to the Northern Seas in the XIV
Century,” p. 15.

(Ser. ii, 4) “ Journey of Rubruck and Carpini,” pp. 58,
144, 190, 197.

„ Voyages IX, 1540.

Quoting Fernando Alarchon, Henry Hawks, de
Nica (1539), Miles Philips, p. 410, John Chilton,
(1568), pp. 364, 373.

„ XII, p. 224.

Hamilton, Lady Augusta : " Marriage Rites and Cus-
toms,” etc. (1822).

DE LA Harpe, iii (Congo), 190, 311, 314, 317, 345, 376, 394-
iv (Ceylon), pp. 102, 359, 363, 371, 374, 376.

Hearne, Samuel : " From Prince of Wales’ Fort, Hudson

248 Ancient Rites and Ceremonies

Bay, to the Northern Ocean,” 1769-1772 (1796), pp.
34, 121-2, i4a-9, 153. 204-6, 224, 322-36,

338, 341-3, 345-6.

Herberstein, 1550 : quoting Hakluyt, x., p. 81.

Kane, Dr. : ** Arctic Expedition,” pp. 31, 337, 340

(1856).

Kerr, Robert: "Travels,” i (Tartary), pp. 167-9, 171-
2, 174-6; viii (Java), 1813, pp. 55-60, 144-6; (Sumatra)
pp. 55-58, 60; (Malay), pp. 190, 215; xvi (Society),
pp. 26, 36, 144-5 (1812-13).

Kolbin, Peter : ” The Present State of the Cape of
Good Hope,” tr. Medley Guido, 1704, pp. 29, 46, 50,
93, 144, 158, 207, 437, 461 (1731)-

Lanin, E. B. : " Russian Characteristics,” p. 88-9.

Lobo, Father Jerome: "Voyage to Abyssinia,” trans.
S. Johnson, p. 229 (1735)

Mansfield, Parkyns ; " Life in Abyssinia,” pp. 7, 144,
207-8, 300-1.

Mariner, William : compiled from communications of
W. M., by J. Martin, 2 vols., vol. i, pp. 105-8, 133-8,
150-1, 297, 453, 456; vol. ii (1817), pp. 99-100, 126
-8, 155-6, 225-6.

Melville, PIerman : 1814, " Four Months among the

Natives of the Marquesas Islands,” pp. 13, 100-2,
138, 212, 249-50.

Merolla : quoted Pinkerton's " Voyages,” xvi (1853),
pp. 261, 229, 320, 330, 345, 348.

Messum, Capt., C.V.S.C., R.N.

Mink, Jan, Lejeal Gustave, Boot, G. H., and others :
" La Hollande.”

DE Morga, Antonio, 1609 : " The Philippine Islands,”
tr. Hon. E. J. Stanley (i868) (Hakluyt Soc., 39), pp.
282, 296, 301, 305.

Nadaillac, Marquis de : " Prehistoric America,” tr.
D'Anvers, pp. 31, 205, 312, 439.

Olearius, Adam : " Voyages en Muscovie, Tartaric,

Perse,” tr. de Wicquefort, vol. i (1769), p. 93.

Park, Mungo : quoted Samuel Burder.

Peacock, George : ” Hand-book of Abyssinia,” pp. 36,
43 (1867).

Pearse, Nathaniel : " Life and Adventures of Nathaniel
Pearce by Himself,” vol. ii, pp. 7, 9, 26, 42 (1831).

Authorities Quoted and Consulted 249

PiCART : Religious Ceremonies/* vol. iii, pp. 132, 133,

137. 187 (1731)-

Potter, John, D.D. : “Archaeologia Graeca,** 2 vols., parti,
pp. 56, 145, 182 ; part ii, pp. 185, 329, 338 ; part iv,
299, 346, 375 (1813).

Raleigh, Sir Walter : quoted Hakluyt, x, ” The Principal
Navigations/’ pp. 361, 367, 406, 424.

Rink, Dr. Henry : Tales and Traditions of the Esqui-
maux,” pp. 25, 28, 36, 39, 48. ” Danish Greenland,”

pp. 23, 1 17, 205 (1872).

Rivero and Tschudi : ” Peruvian Antiquities,” tr.

Francis Hawks, pp. 79, 87, 160, 185, 187, 195 (1854).

DE Rubruck, Wili iam : quoted Kerr i, “ Travels.” pp.
167-9 171-2, i74~7» 231.

RTJssiiL, Rev. M. : ” Polynesia,” pp. 94, 126, 183, 212,
216, 249. 251 (1763).

Salmon, Thomas : ” Geograpliical and Hist. Grammar ”
(1760), pp. 137-8, 430.

Tavernier, Jean B., 1654-1667 : ” Persian Travels,” book
iv., tr. Phillips, 1678, vol. i, pp. 4, 85, 163, 245, 405, 485.

Thornton, Thomas : ” Present State of Turkey,” vol. ii
(1809), pp. 107, 139, 142-3, 183-5, 221-2, 224, 234,
238-9.

DE Tott, Baron : ” Memoirs,” vol. i, tr (1786), pp. 95, 99,
125, 136, 155.

Vancouver, Captain George : ” Voyage in the Dis-

covery,'* vol. iii (1798), pp. 22-3 42, 45.

DE LA Vega, Inca Garcilasso : ” Histoire des Yucas,”
2 vols., tr. J. Baudoin ; i, pp. 38, 44, 65, 79, 203,
315 ; ii, pp. 99, 139 (1867).

Wallace, Alfred Russel : ” The Malay Archipelago,”
vol. i (1869), pp. 271-2.

Ward, Herbert : ” A Voice from the Congo,” 242-43,
245 -

Williams, Thomas : ” Fiji Islands and Inhabitants,”
p. 287 (1824).

Wilson, Rev. S. S. : ” Greece, Malta, and the Ionian/*
p. 381 (1839).

Wortley Montagu, Lady Mary : ” Letters ** (1776) ;
vol. ii, pp. 83, 84 ; vol. iii, pp. ii, 12, 26, 27 (1718).

INDEX

A

Abraham, 230
Acheen, 229
Acosta, Father, 165
Afghanistan, 192
Air God, 26

Aladin, King Sultan, 229
Alarchon, 23
Alaric, 61
Alcibiades, 66
Alexander VI, Pope, 171
Alguoguins, 124
Amazon, I. of, 172
Amazon, River, 224
Amazons, 50, 225, 226,

228

Amboyna, 95* 97
Amh^ra, 15
Amulets, 241, 242
Angekok, 133, 134
Antiochus, 66
Anzikos, 50
Arabs, 13
Ararat, 154
Architecture, 165
Areca Nuts, 90, 229
Areka, 207
Areopagus, 65
Aristotle, 61
Armenia, 154
Arreoys, 215
Arva, 104
Arwacas, 227
Asbestos, 136
Astronomy, 19

Ateucht, Prophet Ebraham-
zer, 152
Athens, 65

Aurora Borealis, 130, 135
Ava, 76

Azev-beyan, 156
Aztecs, 19, 20, 25, 31, 33
Aztlam, 20

B

Baatu, 205

Balsamum, 227

Bancroft, 33

Bankes, 219

Bantam, 89, 90

Basci, 227

Bastinado, 231

Batavia, 37

Baxache, 173

Beauvais, Vincent de, 209

Betel, 90, 229

Blackfeet, 115, 116

Blacksmith, 17

Bligh, Capt., 218, 219

Boers, 82

Bogaha, 39

Bola, 228

Bolotoo, 190, 191

Bonda, 44

Bouda, 17

Bourgainville, Mons de, 213
Brazil, 220
Brind, 14
Bruce, Dr., 14
Buddou, 38, 39

c.

Index

Cadi, 150, 237
Calabash, 50

Calmuck Tartars, 204, 207
209

Camanchees, 113
Campbell, Archibald, 75
Cannibalism, 57, 97 » 132.

213, 21S, 220
Caribs, 224, 225, 227
Caron, 72

Carpini, Piau de, 207
Carthaginians, 64
Casique, 226

Catlin, 116, 118. 119, 123
Ca\em Dwellers, 20
Cerasts (Horned Snakes), 82
Cerberus, 144
Cecrops, 61
Cevola, 23
Chapultepec, 21
Chardin, Sir John, 148, 149,
151, 154, 157, 242, 245
<. ‘^arruas, 221
Chicha, 222

Chichimecas, 20, 22, 31
Chichu, 168
Cliiltern, John, 25
Christians, 25
Chrysorecas, 233
Cicuic, 23

Circassians, 192, 199, 201
Civilization, 19
Clarke, Dr. E. D., I 94 » ^ 9 ^
Cock-fighting, 91
Cockrane, 198, 202
Coinage, 123, i8i
Colima, 23
Colombo, 37

Colombus, Christopher, 225
Communism, 20
Conder, Joshia, 195

251

Cook, Capt., 73, 74, 80, 81,
182, 212, 215, 219
Copper Indians, 125, 126, 127
Corpahuasis, 161
Cortez, 31
Cosmes, 207
Cossacks, 192, 198, 199
Cowa, 26

Cranty, 132, 136, 142
Crees, 113
Cretans, 66
Crimea, 200, 203
Criss, 91, 92
Crow Indians, 116
Cura, 225
Cusco, 162
Cuzco, 159
Czech, 177

D.

Daccha, 83
Dahkotas, 122
Dakkin, 144
Damien, Father, 74
Dampier, loi
Dapper, 49

D’Arvieux, Chevalier, 237
De Azara, 222
Diana, 63, 64
Digligi, 37

Diogenes, Laertius, 65
Divorce, 37, 82, 85, 89, 107,
228

Dogdon, 152
Dog-ribbed Indians, 127
Don, 202
Dondos, 43
Dowlat, 229
Dreams, 70
During, Victor, 234
Dutch, 37. 82, 85. .89, 107,
228

252

Index

E.

Earth God, 30
Easter Island, 182
Eatooa, 213
Ed-thin, 130
Electris, 71
Enkhuisen, 109
Epimenides, 65
Epithalium, 196
Erivan, 154

Esquimaux, 126, 129, 132,

134

Ethiopia, 13
Ettooah, 79
Eurotas, 67
Ewaipanoma, 226

F.

Falcons, 16
Fatima, 235

Feasts, 14, 50, 99, 105, 156,
166, 167, 168, 178, 193,
197, 198, 204, 213, 220,

221, 227, 229
Fiji, 73, 182
Finlanders, 193

Fishing, 76, 135, 136, 137,
140, 141, 142, 191, 229
Friendly Islands, 73
Funerals, 46, 55, 64, 71, 105,
118, 127, 134, 136, 146,
170, 189, 195, 204, 210,

222, 223, 224, 228
Fytoca, 189

G.

Gaetana, Juan, 73
Galitzen, Prince, 195
Gangas, 48
Ganza-Kitorna, 48
Garcilasso, Inca, 158, 169

Gaures, 151, 153
Genghis, Khan of Tartary,
204

Georgia, 245
Geradas, 67
Ghinapuang, 175
Ghosts, 70
Gnato, 186
Gniezno, 177
Gobbi, 42
Gouda, III
Gounja, 87
Greenland, 128, 135
Guaham, 98
Guanians, 225, 226, 227
Guaranys, 223
Guebres, 156
Guinea, 224, 225

H.

Hagar, 230

Hamilton, Lady Augusta,
85, 162

Hanenca, 79
Harlem, 109

Harpe, de la, 89, 139, 216,
219

Hasseky, 236
Hauda, 39

Hawaii (Owhyhee), 73, 8i
Hawks, Henry, 97
Head Hunting, 96
Hearne, 125, 126, 131
Helena, 71
Heracanqui, 164
Hesiod, 61
Holl, 128
Holland, 89
Homicide, 100
Hooarah, 78
Hoolah Hoolah, 105
Homed Snakes (Cerasts), 82

Index

253

Honis Apollo, 68
Houris, 148, 153
Huanacauti, 159
Huayna Capac, 171
Huitzilopochtl, 27
Hunting, 16, 83, 135, 136,

138. 141. 142

Hypocras, 109

I.

Ifi, 189

Ikons, 193, 204
Illyrians, 65
Imbonda, 44
Incas, lOo, 1 61
Infanticicle, 54, 132, 215
Irri, 39
Ishmael, 230
Isigonus, 65
Isis, 32, 166
Ispahan!, 147
Issiutoks, 134
H^ory Hunters, 49

j-

Jaddeses, 39

Jaggas, 50

James, Mr., 195

Jeremy, 71

Jesuits, 89, 172

John II of Portugal, 14

Judaism, 13

K.

Kajak, 140
Kalmucks, 202
Kamschatdales, 202
Kane, Dr., 133, 135
Karagoss, 200
Katon Kiaga, 235

Kava, 104, 184
Kergi, 201
Kermesses, no
Khirigriquas, 82
Kiahya-bey, 235
Kislar aga, 234
Kite flying, 75, 91
Knox, 38, 39
Koolkarro, 50
Koppuh, 39
Koran, 242
Kraals, 83, 85, 86
Kumiss, 207

Kysaletski, Michael, 194

L.

Landa, Bishop, 33
Kapouia, 203

Laws, 67, 142, 159, 160, 161,
174, 189, 197, 215, 221,
233> 236
Lech, 177
Lewa-levu, 59
Llamas, 169
Loango, 42

Lobo, Father Jerome, 14
Lomback, 95
Lopez, 46, 49
Lumi, 76
Lycurgus, 66

M.

Macedon, 61
Magellan, 98, 172
Magicians, 70, 102
Mahometanism, 13, 35, 199,
230

Malaya, 73, 89
Mama-Oella Huaco, 1 58, 1 59
Manco-Capac, 158, 159, i6i
Mandans, 117, 119, 120

254

Index

Manille, 172
Manoa, 225
Maoris, 182

Mariner, Mr., 184, 185, 190
Maro, 77, 78
Marco Polo, 88
Marquesas, 183
Marriage, 46, 53, 54, 61, 62,
63* 64, 77, 84, 88, 90,
93 . 95 . 100. 104. 105.
112, 120, 128, 139, 149,

150. 151. 153. 155. 156,

162, 163, 175, 180, 185,
196, 197, 199, 200, 202,
204, 205, 209, 210, 214,
219, 221, 222, 223, 236,
238, 245

Matabooles, 184, 186, 187
Mathematics, 19
Matimbas, 42
Mayas, 19, 20
Mbakamdroti, 58, 59
Mecca, 230

Medicine Man, 115, 133,
13b

Melville, Herman, 104
Mendana, Marquess de, 103
Merolla, 42

Mexico, 20, 21, 25, 28, 32,
33

Mingrelia, 242, 245
Missouri, 116, 117
Mokisso, 44, 45
Molokai, 73
Mongols, 147, 204, 207
Monomotapa, 50
Montagu, Lady Mary
Wortley, 235, 241
Montezuma, 33
Moutaa, 151
Moon, 32, 87
Morai, 75, 80, i86

Mordvinof, Admiral, 203
Morgan de, 173, 176
Morier, 147, 151
Moscow, 195
Mound Dwellers, 20
Mtecuhzoma, 29
Mungo Park, 49
Muscovites, 192, 194, 197
Mussulman Religion, 17

N.

Nant-e-na, 130
Ndengei, 57
Negroids, 13, 43
Netzahualcoyotzin, King, 27
Nica, Frier Marcus de, 21
Nikerheva, 103
Noah, 154
Nomads, 192
Norahoes, 113
North American Indians, 33
Novgorod, 192
Nubia, 13

O.

Oahu (Wahoo), 73, 75
Offa, Palla Maups, 38
Olearius, 197
Omens, 69
Orenoqueponi, 227
Orinoco, 224, 227, 228
Oro, 217

Otahiti (Tahiti), 212
Ovid, 64

Owhyhee (Hawaii), 73, 81

P.

Pachacamac, 159
Pallas, 1 61
Pampas, 228

Index

255

Paraguay, 223
Parkyns, Mansfield, 17
Passalog, 175
Passava, 175
Patignog, 175
Paumoter Group, 182
Pays-bas Unis, 109
Pemican, 120
Peruvians, 23
Peteravik, 134
Petersburg, St., 195
Pigmies, 42
Pisang, 96
Plato, 61
Pliny, 65, 69
Poe (Taraj, 74
Polvgr.my, 120, 197, 215,
220, 221
Polynesia, 103
Pomare, 212
Pomerania, 178
Popa Root, 103
Portuguese, 37, 43
Potter, Dr., 67, 71
\ ow, 77

I'l vests, 28, 29. 30. 33. 39,

44. 45. 48, 52. 55. 56.
58, 75. 105. 153. 155.

lOl, 163, 169, 176, 184,
193. 195. 196, 200, 202,
2T3, 218, 223, 238, 244
Puelches, 228
Pulo Wey, 229
Pulque, 25, 30, 32
Pyrard, 37

Q.

Quahuac, 21
Quetzaaletatl, 24
Quipos, 165
Quiros, 212

R.

Rain-god, 30

Raleigh, Sir Walter, 225, 226
Ra Nambasanga, 58
Rasphuis, 112
Rattan, 231
Renteeners, 108
Rhodians, 65
Rivero, 160
Rokomoutu, 58
Ross, Capt., 132
Rurick, 192
Rus, 177

Russell, Rev. M., 103

S.

Sacrifices, 21, 22, 24, 26,
27, 28, 29, 32, 46, 79.
86, 105, 122, 124, 168,
169, 175, 188, 189, 206.
213, 217

Salmon, Thomas, 107

Samar, 172

Samba and Pango, 43

Saptargat, 208

Saturn, 64

Saturnalia, 178

Scalping, 113, 116, 117, 120

Scritch-Owls, 65

Seraglio, 234

Shaab, Frederic, 135

Shem, 13

Sioux Indians, 113, 122

Snail, 32

Socialism, 20

Socrates, 66

Solon, 70

Solstice, 178

Somara, Lopez de, 23

Somosmo, 52

Spain, 20, 21, 31

Spaniards, 33,89,102,170,172

Index

256

Spinhuis, 112
Spirits, 17, 49, 60, 86, 143,
144, 145, 177, 185, 204,
213, 218

St. Nicholas, 194

Su-chimilei, 21

Sun God, 166, 167, 168, 176

Suzon, 173

Szopka, 178

T.

Taboo, 59, 84, 104, 105, 183,
186, 188, 218
Tabor, 129
Tagales, 98
Tahiti, 182

Tahitians, 47, 103, 212, 215
Tamaahmaah, 74, 75
Tangaloa, 191
Tapa, 214
Taro, (Poe), 74
Tartary, 32, 135, 193, 206,
208

Tasman, 232
Tatas, 204
Tavernier, 147, 244
Taygetus Mt., 67
Tehuktchi, 202
Temple, Sir William, 107
Temple of Fire, 156
Teniers, no
Tenochillan, 21
Ternate, 94
Thangawalu, 58
Thibet, 204
Thornton, 239
Tigre, 15, 16
Tipis, 1 13
Titaway, 97
Toltecs, 28, 31, 33
Toluca, 31
Tonga, 104, 182

Torwald, 135

Tott, Baron de, 239

Triballians, 65

Tschudi, 160

Tuban, 89

Tuke (Turben) 89

Tupys, 224

Tu Vairatoa, 212

Typee (Taipi), 103, 104, 106

U.

Ulemats, 241
Unicorn, 14
Uto, 58

V.

Vancouver, Capt., 75, 78,
79, 81

Van Diemen, 232
Vega, Garcilasso de la, 158,
Vera Cruz, 25 [169

Vita-levu, 58
Vitzilipuztli, 21
Volga, 202

W.

Wadas, 37

Wahoo (Oahu), 73, 75
Wallace, 35
Wampum, 123
War, 1 6
Waraus, 227
Williams, 57, 215
Wilson, Rev. S. S., 69
Winnebago, 124
Witchcraft, 93, 134, 164
Witch-doctor, 48
Woruisamoeos, 225

Y.

Yucatan, 33